Iowa archaeology

"This entry is about the buried remains of human cultures in Iowa. For studies of rocks, fossils, paleontology, and soils, see Geology of Iowa."

From Hunters to Farmers: Overview of Iowa Prehistory

When the first Native Americans arrived in what is now Iowa more than 13,000 years ago, they were hunters and gatherers living in a Pleistocene glacial landscape. By the time European explorers visited Iowa, Native Americans were largely settled farmers with complex economic, social, and political systems. This transformation happened gradually. During the Archaic period (10,500-2,800 years ago) Native Americans adapted to local environments and ecosystems, slowly becoming more sedentary as populations increased. More than 3,000 years ago, during the Late Archaic period, Indians in Iowa began utilizing domesticated plants. The subsequent Woodland period saw an increase on the reliance on agriculture and social complexity, with increased use of mounds, ceramics, and specialized subsistence. During the Late Prehistoric period (beginning about A.D. 900) increased use of maize and social changes led to social flourishing and nucleated settlements. The arrival of European trade goods and diseases in the Protohistoric period led to dramatic population shifts and economic and social upheaval, with the arrival of new tribes and early European explorers and traders. During the Historical period European traders and Native Americans in Iowa gave way to American settlers and Iowa was transformed into an agricultural state. [The general context of Iowa prehistory is covered in Alex 2000]

Iowa Archaeologists

Archaeologists have studied the prehistory of Iowa since the mid-19th century, when large Indian mounds were first observed along the Mississippi. Early archaeologists such as S.V. Proudfit and Theodore Lewis documented large sites such as earthworks, mounds, and earthlodges. [Proudfit 1880, Lewis 1885] Truly systematic recording of Iowa sites began with Charles R. Keyes and Ellison Orr’s surveys and excavations beginning in the 1920s. Documenting hundreds of sites, often just before they disappeared under the plow, Keyes’ and Orr’s work led to the formation of the Iowa Archaeological Survey, the Iowa Archeological Society, and the designation of Effigy Mounds National Monument. After their deaths in 1951, the Survey was disbanded, and their efforts were continued by the University of Iowa’s Department of Sociology and Anthropology, which formed the [http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa Office of the State Archaeologist] (OSA) in 1959.Alex 2000] The OSA maintains an extensive list of more than 23,000 recorded archaeological sites in Iowa, and conducts survey and excavation across the state. Other institutions conducting archaeological research in Iowa include the [http://www.culturalaffairs.org/shsi/preservation/index.html State Historical Society of Iowa] , the Iowa Archeological Society, the [http://www.uiowa.edu/~anthro/index.shtml University of Iowa] , [http://www.anthr.iastate.edu/ Iowa State University] , [http://www.grinnell.edu/academic/anthropology/ Grinnell College] , [http://anthropology.luther.edu/ Luther College] , and private archaeological firms. [ [http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/aia/aiamember.htm Association of Iowa Archaeologists: Membership Directory ] ] Professional archaeologists in Iowa are represented by the [http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/aia/index.html Association of Iowa Archaeologists] . Iowa archaeology grew dramatically beginning in the 1960s with the introduction of Cultural Resources Management legislation that required archaeological survey and excavation at many federal projects in Iowa. [Alex 2000:15-28]

Paleoindian (13,500-10,500 years ago)

Paleoindian hunters and gatherers were the first occupants of Iowa, entering the state at the end of the Pleistocene glacial period. At the time the state was covered by tundra, conifer forests, and deciduous forests. Areas immediately north of Des Moines extending to Minnesota were covered by the receding Des Moines Lobe, a large glacier system. Highly mobile, their sites are scattered across Iowa and are noted for their large stone points. While Paleoindians were traditionally viewed as big game hunters, more recent research suggests much of their subsistence was derived from small game and wild plants. Paleoindian points are found throughout Iowa, but almost no intact Paleoindian sites have been excavated, probably because they were ephemeral and are now either destroyed by plowing or are very deeply buried in river valleys.

Clovis and other Early Paleoindian

The oldest artifacts found in Iowa are Clovis points, large lanceolate points found occasionally in all parts of the state except for the Des Moines Lobe. While widespread, only one Clovis site has been excavated in Iowa, the Rummells-Maske site in Cedar County; unfortunately, this site was damaged by plowing, although 20 points and point fragments were recovered. [Anderson and Tiffany 1972] Possible sources of game were giant Pleistocene megafauna, including mammoth, mastodon, and giant forms of bison, all of which are now extinct.Other Iowa Early Paleoindian points include Gainey, a point that appears to be intermediate between Clovis and Folsom. Gainey points were also recovered at Rummells-Maske. While Folsom points are found throughout Iowa, especially western Iowa, none have been excavated in a well-preserved site. [Alex 2000:49-50; Morrow http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/learn/prehistoric/paleo.htm]

Dalton and other Late Paleoindian

At the beginning of the glacial-free Holocene Epoch, humans in Iowa utilized projectile point found throughout the mid-continent, including Dalton, Fayette, Agate Basin, and Hell Gap. Humans were still highly mobile, and by this time most of the Pleistocene megafauna had gone extinct. As with the Early Paleoindian period, no intact Late Paleoindian sites have been excavated in Iowa. [Alex 2000:50-53]

Archaic Period

The Archaic is the longest period of Iowa prehistory, lasting about 8,000 years. Overall, populations appear to have increased in Iowa during the Archaic, despite a changing climate. During this time Native Americans transitioned from highly mobile hunters and gatherers with large ranges towards a focus on local resources and ecosystems. Domesticated plants appeared in Iowa towards the end of the Archiac.

Early Archaic (10,500-7,500 years ago)

During the Early Archaic period regional variation in point forms is seen in Iowa, and Indians adapted to more localized forms of hunting and gathering while probably maintaining seasonal movements from camp to camp. Common stone tool types are Corner-notched St. Charles points and Thebes Knives. Soon Hardin and Kirk points appear in Iowa as well. [Morrow, http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/learn/prehistoric/lpaleo.htm] Excavated Early Archaic sites in Iowa include the Soldow Site, [Flanders 1977] Horizons IIIa and II of the Cherokee Sewer Site,Anderson and Semken 1980] and the Simonsen Site. [Frankforter and Agogino 1960]

Middle Archaic (7,500-5,000 years ago)

Temperatures rose in the mid-continent during the Middle Archaic, a warming trend known as the Hypsithermal. Grasslands expanded east, forests became less common, and many Iowa lakes shrank or disappeared. Humans responded by diversifying their subsistence strategy: eastern Iowa saw a shift towards river resources, and western Iowa towards Plains resources. Excavated sites in eastern and central Iowa include the Brash Site, [Collins 1995] the Gast Spring Site, and the Ed’s Meadow Site. [Morrow 1998] Western Iowa sites include the Turin Site, [Fisher 1995] Horizon I of the Cherokee Sewer Site, and the Pony Creek Site. [Reeves 1973]

Late Archaic (5,000-2,800 years ago)

In the Late Archaic the climate became more similar to modern with the end of the Hypsithermal. The number of Late Archaic Sites increased in Iowa, perhaps reflective of increased populations allowed by climate change and new subsistence strategies. The Late Archaic sees the first indication of mound building in Iowa, as well as direct evidence of domesticated plants, and large, long-term settlements. The Red Ocher Culture appeared in northeast Iowa, associated with copper artifacts and mound building. Numerous Late Archaic sites have been excavated in eastern Iowa, some showing the gradual adaptation of cultigens, including squash, little barley, marsh elder, and barnyard grass. Sites with evidence for early cultigens in Iowa include the Edgewater Park Site in Coralville, [Whittaker et al. 2007; http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3904/is_200704/ai_n19433705] the Gast Spring Site,Dunne and Green 1998] and the Sand Run Slough West Site. [Alex 2000:76-77] In western Iowa, Late Archaic sites are common, however large bison killing or processing sites are less common than before, and there is little evidence for the use of domesticated plants. [Alex 2000:78-79]

Woodland Period

During the Woodland period, many Indians in Iowa shifted away from hunting and gathering and used more domesticated plants, although wild food was still important. Ceramics, the bow and arrow, burial mounds, and evidence of political and social hierarchy became common at Woodland sites in Iowa.

Early Woodland (800 B.C.-200 B.C.)

The Early Woodland period saw the introduction of ceramics to Iowa, including Marion Thick and Black Sand types. Marion Thick may have originated with the nucleated Late Archaic cultures of the Upper Midwest, and was widespread in distribution. [Alex 2000:88; Klippel 1972] Early Woodland Indians in eastern Iowa built large burial mounds in the Mississippi River region, and participated in long-distance trade of exotic raw material. This long-distance trade may have been the forerunner of the later Havanna-Hopewell trading sphere. In north-central Iowa, Early Woodland peoples appear to have interacted more directly with the Prairie Lakes region of Minnesota. Numerous Early Woodland sites have been excavated in Iowa, including the Gast Spring Site, and many sites which have not been formally published. [Alex 2000:87-98]

Middle Woodland (200 B.C.- A.D. 400)

The Middle Woodland Indians of eastern Iowa participated at the edge of the Havana and Hopewell interaction networks. This cultural connection to the East is seen in the construction of large mounds, earthworks, and the trade of exotic goods over very long distances. The Toolesboro Mound Group in Louisa County included a large octagonal earthen enclosure that covered several acres; earthworks of this style are indicative of the monumental construction once seen in Havana, Illinois along the Illinois River and sites in the Ohio River drainage including Chillicothe and Newark, Ohio. Hopewell trading networks were quite extensive, with obsidian from the Yellowstone area, copper from Lake Superior, and shells from the Gulf Coast appearing in Middle Woodland Iowa sites. Sites in eastern Iowa appeared to nucleate, vacating much of the hinterlands. [Alex 2000:100-109] Western Iowa appears to have been not directly involved in this exchange network, and the Havana-Hopewell flourishing did not extend much above the Kansas City area of the Missouri River. [Alex 2000:112-115]

Late Woodland (400-1250)

The Late Woodland Period was once considered to be relatively unimportant and uninteresting compared to earlier and later periods, but recent research shows unexpected cultural complexity.Benn and Green 2000] Late Woodland sites are more dispersed than Middle Woodland sites, but they are apparently more numerous. Gone are the complex earthworks and long-distance trade networks, but this does not appear to be a cultural collapse, since Late Woodland sites and artifact types overlap with and transition from Middle Woodland sites. Technical changes of the Late Woodland include the use of true arrow heads, thinner and larger ceramics with less elaborate decorations, and the adaptation of new crops, including maize. [Alex 2000:115-118] Numerous regional variations and phases have been defined in Iowa, based in large extent on differences of ceramic form and decoration. Excavations at Late Woodland sites are common, some of these sites showing surprising complexity. The Gast Farm Site excavations revealed a complex settlement associated with a midden of refuse 100 m in diameter. Large storage and food processing pits, trash middens, and other features were excavated. Occupants utilized acorns, other nuts and fruits, goosefoot, little barley, maygrass, sunflower, fish, birds, deer, muskrat, and turtle. There was little evidence of long-distance trade. [ Alex 2000:120-122; Benn and Green 2000] The Rainbow and M.A.D. sites provide a glimpse into the Late Archaic of western Iowa. At Rainbow, a large house was excavated, showing evidence of reuse and possible joint occupation by two families. [Benn 1990] Mound building became more common during the Late Woodland Period, large groups of mounds appeared including the Slinde Mound Group, and the Fish Farm Mound Group.

Effigy Mounds

The Late Woodland in Iowa is perhaps best known for effigy mounds, large, low mounds shaped like animals such as birds and bears. Effigy mounds are distributed across southern Wisconsin, northern Illinois, and northeast Iowa. A large concentration of mounds in several groups is preserved at Effigy Mounds National Monument. Like most mounds in Iowa, excavation reveals that these mounds were commonly used as sacred burial locations but contain few artifacts. [Lenzendorf 2000] Recent ground-penetrating radar survey of selected mounds at Effigy Mounds National Monument reveal that many are badly disturbed, but others appear to be comparatively intact. [Whittaker and Storey 2008]

Late Prehistoric (900-1600)

Maize appears to have been the catalyst for change in the Late Prehistoric period in Iowa. While maize had been a minor crop in the Woodland Period, many archaeologists believe new varieties of maize were introduced to the region that produced higher yields, allowing for a population boom. This increase in population, combined with the potential for surplus and growing tensions over control of territory, appears to have led to large nucleated settlements throughout the eastern U.S. [Alex 2000:142-145] Although this manifested itself earliest along the Mississippi south of Iowa, the earliest Late Prehistoric cultures appeared in the western part of the state. [Alex 2000:138-139]

Great Oasis (ca. 900-1100)

Great Oasis sites appeared in the Missouri River drainage, and have attributes of both Late Woodland and Late Prehistoric cultures. Great Oasis cultures extended through the eastern Plains from Iowa to South Dakota. Developing independently from the eastern Mississippian cultures, Great Oasis sites display large sites along major stream terraces, increased reliance on agriculture combined with hunting and gathering, substantial pit earth lodges, and a transition from Late Woodland to Late Prehistoric ceramic forms. Overall, Great Oasis appears to have been a regional adaptation of new forms of farming and settlement patterns, including seasonal occupation of different ecological zones, that includes aspects of Late Woodland and the subsequent Middle Missouri Tradition. [Alex 2000; Anderson 1961; Henning 2005]

Mill Creek and Glenwood (1100-1300)

In northwestern Iowa, Great Oasis underwent dramatic changes as Mill Creek sites appeared. While Mill Creek has many stylistic similarities with Great Oasis and some Mill Creek sites contain Great Oasis ceramic forms, Mill Creek sites are substantially different. Mill Creek sites became nucleated, often fortified, had a much higher dependence on corn and bison hunting, show substantial evidence of long-distance trade, and appear to have been occupied year-round. Glenwood sites in southwest Iowa near the Missouri River appear to be unrelated to the earlier Great Oasis sites, and are notable for their large earthlodge sites. Glenwood sites appear to have been more oriented in lifeways and trade with the Central Plains tradition cultures to the west than with the Mississippian cultures to the southeast. Around 1300 A.D. Mill Creek and Glenwood sites in Iowa disappeared, replaced by the rapidly spreading Oneota cultures. [Alex 2000; Green 1991; Perry 1998; Steinacher and Carlson 1998; Tiffany 2002]

Oneota (1250-1700)

Very large Mississippian centers appeared around A.D. 1000, with enormous earthen pyramids, palisades, and extreme social hierarchy. The earliest large Mississippian center was Cahokia, east of St. Louis. Cahokia appears to have dominated trade in the upper Mississippi, with satellite or closely aligned settlements as far as Aztalan in Wisconsin.Emerson and Lewis 1991] In Iowa, there is little evidence of Mississippian occupation, and the Late Woodland lasts longer in the east than in the west. This is puzzling, given the proximity to Mississippian cultures; it is possible that the nearby presence of the large, hierarchal Mississippian trading network inhibited local development. After the decline of the Cahokia network after A.D. 1250 the local Late Woodland populations expanded in complexity, developing large nucleated villages and their own trading network, known as Oneota. Oneota, named by Charles Keyes for a river in northeast Iowa, was a large cultural manifestation that covered the Upper Midwest at the edge of the Mississippian cultures. Important Oneota sites in Iowa include Kingston, [Straffin 1971] Mckinney, [Alex 2000:197-198] Christenson, [Benn 1991] Blood Run, [Green and Tolmie 2004; http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/IAM/2007Ioway/blood_run.htm] Hartley Fort, the Lane Enclosure, [Alex 2000:206-207] and sites along the Upper Iowa River. [Wedel 1959] After the decline of the Mill Creek and Glenwood cultures in western Iowa, Oneota cultures appeared across the state. It is widely accepted that the Oneota were the ancestors of modern Indian tribes associated with Iowa, including the Ioway, Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Otoe, Missouria, and Omaha.

Protohistoric (1600-1800)

Protohistoric refers to the period when Indians were exposed to European trade items and large population shifts occurred because of introduced European diseases and warfare, but there is very little direct written documentation. Explorers such as Marquette and Joliet occasionally documented Indians along the Mississippi in Iowa, but it was not until the early nineteenth century that regular written accounts of Indians in Iowa became common. Indians in the early Protohistoric period continued many aspects of Oneota culture, but soon almost all indigenous technology disappeared, including ceramics and stone tool production. [Alex 2000:211-226] It was during this period that the Meskwaki (Fox) and Sauk appeared in eastern Iowa, displaced from their homelands in the east. Important protohistoric sites include Milford; Blood Run; Gillett Grove, a probable Ioway site in northwest Iowa; [Shott et al. 2002] and Iowaville. [Alex 2000; http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/IAM/2007Ioway/iowaville.htm]

Historical (1800-present)

The earliest European forts and settlements were established by traders beginning in the 1680s. Almost none of these ephemeral early historical sites have been located archaeologically. Julien Dubuque’s Mines of Spain settlement and adjacent Meskwaki village occupied in the late 1700s and early 1800s, has been the subject of numerous archaeological surveys. [Alex 2000:227] Fort Madison (1808-1813), the first American settlement and the first American fort in Iowa, was partially excavated in 1965.McKusick 1966] American settlement began in earnest in the 1830s, and the official removal of Indians from Iowa was completed by 1852. Several of these historical sites have been excavated, including Gilbert’s Trading Post [Alex 2000:234-235] and Fort Atkinson.. Archaeologists have also studied historical American settlements, including excavations at the Plum Grove Historic House, [Charlton et al. 1988; Whittaker 1999] the Buxton African-American community, [Gradwohl and Osborn 1984] and the Bowen’s Prairie community. [ [http://www.uiowa.edu/~osa/gcp/bowensprairie/ The University of Iowa Office of the State Archaeologist: GCP - Bowen's Prairie Historic Archaeological District ] ]

Notes

References

*Alex, Lynn M. (2000) "Iowa’s Archaeological Past." University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.
* Anderson, Adrian D. (1961) The Glenwood Sequence: a Local Sequence for a Series of Archaeological Manifestations in Mills County, Iowa. "Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society" 10:1–101.
* Anderson, Adrian D., and Joseph A. Tiffany (1972) Rummells-Maske: A Clovis Find-Spot in Iowa. "Plains Anthropologist" 17:55–59.
*Anderson, Duane C., and Holmes A. Semken, Jr. (eds.) (1980) "The Cherokee Excavations: Holocene Ecology and Human Adaptations in Northwestern Iowa." Academic Press, New York.
* Benn, David W. (1991) The Christenson Oneota Site, 13PK407. "The Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society" 38.
* Benn, David W. (ed.) (1990) "Woodland Cultures on the Western Prairies: The Rainbow Site Investigations. " Report 18. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
*Benn, David W., and William Green (2000) Late Woodland Cultures in Iowa. In "Late Woodland Societies: Tradition and Transformation across the Midcontinent", ed. T. E. Emerson, D. L. McElrath, and A. C. Fortier, pp. 429–496. University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, Nebraska.
*Collins, James M. (1995) Lithic Technology and Temporal Variation at a Chert Workshop in Central Iowa. "Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society" 42:8–20.
*Charlton, Thomas H., Cynthia O. Charlton, Stephen C. Lensink, and James A. Sartain (1988) Historical Archaeology at Plum Grove. "Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society" 35: 39–69.
*Dunne, Michael T., and William Green (1998) Terminal Archaic and Early Woodland Plant Use at the Gast Spring Site (13LA152), Southeast Iowa. "Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology" 23(1):45–88.
* Emerson, T. E., and R. B. Lewis (eds.) (1991) "Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest. " University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois.
*Fisher, Alton K. (1985) Turin: A Middle Archaic Burial Site in Western Iowa. "Plains Anthropologist" 30:195–218.
* Flanders, Richard E. (1977) The Soldow Site, 13HB1: An Archaic Component from North Central Iowa. "Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society" 24:125– 147.
* Frankforter, W. D., and George A. Agogino (1960) The Simonsen Site: Report for the Summer of 1959. "Plains Anthropologist" 5:65–70.
*Gradwohl, David M., and Nancy M. Osborn (1984) "Exploring Buried Buxton". Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa.
*Green, William (1991) The Paul Rowe Archaeological Collection: A Key to Central Plains Prehistory. "Plains Anthropologist" 36:79–86.
*Green, William, and Clare Tolmie (2004) Analysis of Plant Remains from Blood Run. "Plains Anthropologist" 49:525–625.
* Hennning, Dale R. (2005) The Evolution of the Plains Village Tradition. In "North American Archaeology", T. R. Pauketat and D. D. Loren (eds.), pp. 161-186. Blackwell, Boston.
*Klippel, Walter E. (1972) An Early Woodland Period Manifestation in the Prairie Peninsula. "Journal of the Iowa Archeological Society" 19:1–91.
*Lenzendorf, Dennis (2000) "Effigy Mounds: A Guide to Effigy Mounds National Monument. " Eastern National, Fort Washington, Pennsylvania.
*Lewis, Theodore H. (1885) Effigy Mounds in Iowa. "Science" 6(146):453–454.
*McKusick, Marshall B. (1966) Exploring Old Fort Madison and Old Fort Atkinson. "Iowan Magazine" 15:12–13, 50–51.
*Morrow, Toby A. (1998) "Phase III Excavations at the Ed’s Meadow Site (13DM712)." Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
* Perry, Michael J. (1998) An Archeological Survey of the Lower Pony Creek Valley: Implications for Glenwood Locality Settlement Pattern. "Central Plains Archaeology" 6(1):35-56.
*Proudfit, S. V. (1880) Antiquities of the Missouri Bluffs. "American Antiquarian" 3:271–280.
*Reeves, Brian (1973) The Concept of an Altithermal Cultural Hiatus in Northern Plains Prehistory. "American Anthropologist" 75:1221–1253.
* Steinacher, Terry L., and Gayle F. Carlson (1998) The Central Plains Tradition. In "Archaeology on the Great Plains", W. R. Wood (ed.), pp. 235–268. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.
*Shott, Michael J., Joseph A. Tiffany, John F. Doershuk, and Jason Titcomb (2002) The Reliability of Surface Assemblages: Recent Results from the Gillett Grove Site, Clay County, Iowa. "Plains Anthropologist" 47:165–182.
*Straffin, Dean F. (1971) "The Kingston Oneota Site." Research Report 2. Office of the State Archaeologist, University of Iowa, Iowa City.
* Tiffany, Joseph A. (2002) Archaeological Perspectives on Southwest Iowa. "Journal of the Iowa Archaeological Society" 49:11–26.
*Wedel, Mildred Mott. (1959) Oneota Sites on the Upper Iowa River. "The Missouri Archaeologist" 21(2-4).
*Whittaker, William E. (1999) Production of Animal Commodities at Plum Grove, Iowa City. "Historical Archaeology" 33(4):44–57.
*Whittaker, William E., Michael T. Dunne, Joe Alan Artz, Sarah E. Horgen, and Mark L. Anderson (2007) Edgewater Park: A Late Archaic Campsite along the Iowa River. "Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology" 32(1):4-46.
* Whittaker, William E., and Glenn R. Storey (2008) Ground-Penetrating Radar Survey of the Sny Magill Mound Group, Effigy Mounds National Monument, Iowa. "Geoarchaeology" 23:474–499.