Switching amplifier

A switching amplifier or class-D amplifier is an electronic amplifier which, in contrast to the active resistance used in linear mode AB-class amplifiers, uses switching mode of transistor to regulate power delivery. The amplifier, therefore, features the high power efficiency (low energy losses), which additionally results in lower weight by eliminating the bulky heat sinks. Additionally, if voltage conversion is necessary, the on-the-way high switching frequency allows the the bulky audio transformers to be replaced by small inductors. Low pass LC-filtering smoothes the pulses out and restores the signal shape on the load.

Class D amplifiers are often used in sound reinforcement system power amplifiers, where a high output is required. The Crest Audio CD3000, for example, is a Class D power amplifier that is rated at 1500 watts per channel, yet it weighs only 46 lb (21 kg). [ [http://www.crestaudio.com/products/browse.cfm/action/detail/item/116233/number/CFA-CD3000-AB/cat/320/begin/0/CD+3000%AE.cfm Crest Audio CD3000 Specifications] ] A small number of high-output bass amplifiers also use Class D amplification technology, such as the Yamaha BBT 500H bass amplifier which is rated at 500 watts, and yet it weighs less than 11 lb (5 kg). [ [http://www.yamaha.com/yamahavgn/CDA/ContentDetail/ModelSeriesDetail/0,,CNTID%25253D37182%252526CTID%25253D224900%252526ATRID%25253D20%252526DETYP%25253DATTRIBUTE%252526LGFL%25253DY,00.html Yamaha BBT 500H Specifications] ]

The term "Class-D" is sometimes misunderstood as meaning a "digital" amplifier. The quantization of the output signal at the power stage can be controlled by either an analog signal or a digital signal. Only in the latter case would an amplifier be using fully digital amplification.

Signal modulation

Output stages such as those used in pulse generators are examples of class D amplifiers. However, the term mostly applies to devices intended to reproduce signals with a bandwidth well below the switching frequency. These amplifiers use pulse width modulation (PWM), pulse density modulation (sometimes referred to as pulse frequency modulation) or more advanced forms of modulation such as Sigma delta modulation (see for example Analog Devices AD1990 Class-D audio power amplifier).

The input signal is converted to a sequence of pulses whose average value is directly proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that time. The frequency of the pulses is typically ten or more times the highest frequency of interest in the input signal. The final switching output consists of a train of pulses whose width is a function of the amplitude & frequency of the signal being amplified, and hence these amplifiers are also called PWM amplifiers. The output contains, in addition to the required amplified signal, unwanted spectral components (i.e. the pulse frequency and its harmonics) that must be removed by a passive filter. The filter is usually made with (theoretically) lossless components like inductors and capacitors in order to maintain efficiency.

A PWM amplifier operates similar to a switching power supply (SMPS), except that a PWM amplifier is feeding a varying audio signal voltage into a relatively fixed load, while a switching power supply feeds a fixed voltage into a varying load. A switching amplifier must not be confused with an amplifier that uses an SMPS. A switching amplifier may use any type of power supply but the amplifier itself uses switching of output devices though to achieve amplification.

One way to create the PWM signal is to use a high speed comparator ("C" in the block-diagram above) that compares a high frequency triangular wave and the audio input and generates a series of pulses such that the width of the pulses corresponds to the amplitude and frequency of the audio signal. The comparator then drives a switching controller which in turn drives a high-power switch (usually comprised of MOSFETs) which generates a high-power replica of the comparator's PWM signal.

This PWM output is fed to a low-pass filter which removes the high-frequency switching components of the PWM signal to recover the audio information and feeds it to a loudspeaker. A suitably high switching frequency (or triangular waveform) is mandatory in order to obtain reasonably good frequency response and low distortion. Most class-D amplifiers use switching frequencies greater than 100 kHz. These high frequencies require most of the components in the amplifier to be capable of high speed operation.

Another way to create the PWM signal is adopted when a SPDIF signal or other form of digital feed is available. The digital signal is fed to a DSP that uses software to create the PWM signal. The PWM signal is not usually fed directly to the MOSFETs but to some kind of MOSFET driver (inside the switching controller) that can deliver the high currents required to make the MOSFETs work in the non-linear area (i.e., as switches rather than amplifiers).

Two significant design challenges for MOSFET driver circuits in class-D amplifiers are keeping dead times and linear mode operation as short as possible. "Dead time" is the period during a switching transition when both output MOSFETs are driven into Cut-Off Mode and both are "off". Dead times need to be as short as possible to maintain an accurate low-distortion output signal, but dead times that are too short cause the MOSFET that is switching on to start conducting before the MOSFET that is switching off has stopped conducting. The MOSFETs effectively short the output power supply through themselves, a condition known as "shoot-through". Meanwhile, the MOSFET drivers also need to drive the MOSFETs between switching states as fast as possible to minimize the amount of time a MOSFET is in Linear Mode, the state between Cut-Off Mode and Saturation Mode where the MOSFET is neither fully on nor fully off and conducts current with a significant resistance, creating significant heat. Driver failures that allow shoot-trough and/or too much linear mode operation typically result in catastrophic failure of the MOSFETs.

The final frequency response and distortion depends not only on the switching frequency and the output filter but also on the load (or speaker system) connected to the amplifier's output. A speaker system may contain a single driver (loudspeaker) or multiple ones with a passive crossover. Loudspeaker impedance is not fixed and changes with audio frequency and this compounds with the passive crossover's own problems.

This means that the load presented to the amplifier is not purely resistive and changes with the frequency of the audio signal that the amplifier outputs, thereby causing anomalies in the final frequency response (including peaking, oscillation and distortion). Hence many high-end class-D amplifiers employ negative feedback to correct for phase/frequency anomalies due to speaker impedance and the crossover. This makes the design of a class-D amplifier even more complex.

Causes of distortion include dead time band and high frequency (switching frequency) interference.

Advantages

Despite the complexity involved, a properly designed class-D amplifier offers the following benefits:
* Reduction in size and weight of the amplifier,
* Reduced power waste as heat dissipation and hence smaller (or no) heatsinks,
* Reduction in cost due to smaller heat sink and compact circuitry,
* Very high power conversion efficiency, usually ≥ 90%.

The high efficiency of a class-D amplifier stems from the fact that the switching output stage is never operated in the active (or linear for bipolar junction transistors) region. Instead, the output devices are either ON or OFF - both states representing minimum power dissipation in the output devices. When the devices are ON, the current through them is maximum but the voltage across the devices is (ideally) zero and when the devices are OFF, the voltage across the devices is maximum but the current is zero. In both cases, the power dissipated (V x I) is zero. All these calculations are based on ideal circumstances. In practice, there are always losses, due to leakage, voltage drop, switching speed of power devices, etc. However, these are still small enough to keep efficiency very high.

This still leaves the signal with significant harmonic content, which may be filtered out. To maintain a high efficiency, the filtering is done with purely reactive components (inductors and capacitors), which store the excess energy until it is needed instead of converting it into heat..

See also

* Class A amplifier
* Class B amplifier
* Class C amplifier
* Class T amplifier
* Equibit
* ICEpower

References

* [http://www.avsforum.com/avs-vb/showthread.php?t=594707 List of PWM Amplifiers]
* Sánchez Moreno, Sergio [http://sound.westhost.com/articles/pwm.htm Class D Audio Amplifiers - Theory and Design] [http://www.coldamp.com/opencms/opencms/coldamp/files/Class_D_audio_amplifiers_White_Paper_en.pdf] - Contains very good material on the theory and design of Class-D amplifiers.
* Burchers, Glen [http://resmagonline.com/articles/publish/printer_73.shtml Digital Amplifiers Come of Age]
* Hatfield, Robert [http://www.esemagazine.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=421&Itemid=2 Class D Amplifiers Empower Mobile Multimedia] - Gives strong information on working with Class D amplifiers in mobile platforms
* Haber, Eric [http://electronicdesign.com/Articles/Index.cfm?ArticleID=13874 Designing With Class D Amplifier ICs] - Some IC-oriented Class D design considerations
* Harden, Paul [http://www.aoc.nrao.edu/~pharden/hobby/_ClassDEF1.pdf Introduction to Class C,D,E and F] , The Handiman's Guide to MOSFET "Switched Mode" Amplifiers, Part 1 - A great article on basic digital RF amplifier design intended for ham radio operators but applicable to audio Class D amplifiers.