Bed bug

Bed bug
Bed bug
Cimex lectularius
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hemiptera
Suborder: Heteroptera
Infraorder: Cimicomorpha
Superfamily: Cimicoidea
Family: Cimicidae
Latreille, 1802
Subfamilies, Genera & Species

Subfamily Afrociminae

Subfamily Cimicinae

  • Genus Bertilia
  • Genus Cimex
    • Cimex adjunctus
    • Cimex antennatus
    • Cimex brevis
    • Cimex columbarius
    • Cimex incrassatus
    • Cimex latipennis
    • Cimex lectularius
    • Cimex hemipterus (C. rotundatus)
    • Cimex pilosellus
    • Cimex pipistrella
  • Genus Oeciacus
    • Oeciacus hirundinis[1]
    • Oeciacus vicarius
  • Genus Paracimex
  • Genus Propicimex

Subfamily Cacodminae

  • Genus Aphrania
  • Genus Cacodomus
  • Genus Crassicimex
  • Genus Leptocimex
    • Leptocimex boueti
  • Genus Loxaspis
  • Genus Stricticimex

Subfamily Haematosiphoninae

  • Genus Caminicimex
  • Genus Cimexopsis
    • Cimexopsis nyctalis
  • Genus Haematosiphon
    • Haematosiphon inodorus
  • Genus Hesperocimex
    • Hesperocimex coloradensis
    • Hesperocimex sonorensis
  • Genus Ornithocoris
    • Ornithocoris pallidus
    • Ornithocoris toledoi
  • Genus Psitticimex
  • Genus Synxenoderus
    • Synxenoderus comosus

Subfamily Latrocimicinae

  • Genus Latrocimex

Subfamily Primicimicinae

  • Genus Bucimex
  • Genus Primicimex
    • Primicimex cavernis

Cimicidae (or sometimes bedbugs) are small parasitic insects. The most common type is Cimex lectularius.[2] The term usually refers to species that prefer to feed on human blood. All insects in this family live by feeding exclusively on the blood of warm-blooded animals.[3][4]

A number of health effects may occur due to bed bugs, including skin rashes, psychological effects, and allergic symptoms. Diagnosis involves both finding bed bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms. Treatment is otherwise symptomatic.

In the developed world, bed bugs were largely eradicated as pests in the early 1940s, but have increased in prevalence since about 1995.[5] Because infestation of human habitats has been on the increase, bed bug bites and related conditions have been on the rise as well.[6][7] The exact causes of this resurgence remain unclear; it is variously ascribed to greater foreign travel, more frequent exchange of second-hand furnishings among homes, a greater focus on control of other pests resulting in neglect of bed bug countermeasures, and increasing resistance to pesticides.[7][8] Bed bugs have been known as human parasites for thousands of years.[6]

The name "bed bug" is derived from the insect's preferred habitat of houses and especially beds or other areas where people sleep. Bed bugs, though not strictly nocturnal, are mainly active at night and are capable of feeding unnoticed on their hosts. They have however been known by a variety of names, including wall louse, mahogany flat, crimson rambler, heavy dragoon, chinche and redcoat.[9]

Description

Physical

Adult bed bugs are light brown to reddish-brown, flattened, oval shaped and have no hind wings but front wings are vestigial and reduced to pad-like structures. Bed bugs have segmented abdomens with microscopic hairs that give them a banded appearance. Adults grow to 4–5 mm in length and 1.5–3 mm wide. Newly hatched nymphs are translucent, lighter in colour and become browner as they moult and reach maturity. Bed bugs may be mistaken for other insects such as booklice and carpet beetles, or vice-versa.

Bed bugs use pheromones and kairomones to communicate regarding nesting locations, feeding and reproduction.

The life span of bed bugs varies by species and is also dependent on feeding.

Bed bugs can survive a wide range of temperatures and atmospheric compositions. Below 16.1 °C (61.0 °F), adults enter semi-hibernation and can survive longer.[10] Bed bugs can survive for at least five days at −10 °C (14 °F) but will die after 15 minutes of exposure to −32 °C (−26 °F).[11] They show high desiccation tolerance, surviving low humidity and a 35–40 °C range even with loss of one-third of body weight; earlier life stages are more susceptible to drying out than later ones.[12] The thermal death point for C. lectularius is high: 45 °C (113 °F), and all stages of life are killed by 7 minutes of exposure to 46 °C (115 °F).[11] Bed bugs apparently cannot survive high concentrations of carbon dioxide for very long; exposure to nearly pure nitrogen atmospheres, however, appears to have relatively little effect even after 72 hours.[13]

Feeding habits

Scanning electron micrograph (SEM) of Cimex lectularius, digitally colorized with the insect’s skin-piercing mouthparts highlighted in purple and red.

Bed bugs are obligatory hematophagous (bloodsucking) insects. Most species feed on humans only when other prey are unavailable.[14][15][16] Bed bugs are attracted to their hosts primarily by carbon dioxide, secondarily by warmth, and also by certain chemicals.[17]

A bed bug pierces the skin of its host with what is called a stylet fascicle. This is a unit composed of the maxillae and mandibles which have been modified into elongate shapes from a basic, ancestral style. The right and left maxillary stylets are connected at their midline and a section at the centerline forms a large food canal and a smaller salivary canal. The entire maxillary and mandibular bundle penetrates the skin. The tips of the right and left maxillary stylets are not the same: the right is hook-like and curved, the left straight. The right and left mandibular stylets extend along the outer sides of their respective maxillary stylets and do not reach anywhere near the tip of the fused maxillary stylets. The stylets are retained in a groove in the labium and during feeding they are freed from the groove as the jointed labium is bent or folded out of the way: its tip never enters the wound. The mandibular stylet tips have small teeth and through alternately moving these stylets back and forth, the insect cuts a path through tissue for the maxillary bundle to reach an appropriate sized blood vessel. Feeding by sucking for about three to five minutes or more, the bug then withdraws the stylet bundle from the feeding position and retracts it back into the labial groove, folds the entire unit back under the head, and returns to its hiding place.[4] It takes between five to ten minutes for a bed bug to become completely engorged with blood.”[18]

Although bed bugs can live for a year without feeding,[19] they normally try to feed every five to ten days. In cold weather, bed bugs can live for about a year; at temperatures more conducive to activity and feeding, about 5 months.[20]

At the 57th Annual Meeting of the Entomological Society of America in 2009, newer generations of pesticide-resistant bed bugs in Virginia were reported to survive only two months without feeding.[21]

DNA from human blood meals from bed bugs can be recovered for up to 90 days, which may allow them to be used for forensic purposes for identifying on whom the bed bugs have been feeding.[22][23]

Reproduction

A bed bug (Cimex lectularius) traumatically inseminates another

All bed bugs mate by traumatic insemination.[3][24] Female bed bugs possess a reproductive tract that functions during oviposition, but the male doesn't use this tract for sperm insemination.[3] Instead, the male pierces the female's abdomen with his hypodermic genitalia and ejaculates into the body cavity. In all bed bug species except Primicimex cavernis, sperm are injected into the mesospermalege,[3] a component of the spermalege,[3] a secondary genital structure that reduces the wounding and immunological costs of traumatic insemination.[25][26][27] Injected sperm travel via the haemolymph (blood) to sperm storage structures called seminal conceptacles, with fertilisation eventually taking place at the ovaries.[26]

Male bed bugs sometimes attempt to mate with other males and pierce the latter in the abdomen.[28] This behaviour occurs because sexual attraction in bed bugs is based primarily on size, and males will mount any freshly fed partner regardless of sex.[29] The "bed bug alarm pheromone" consists of (E)-2-octenal and (E)-2-hexenal. It is released when a bed bug is disturbed, as during an attack by a predator. A 2009 study demonstrated that the alarm pheromone is also released by male bed bugs to repel other males who attempt to mate with them.[27]

C. lectularius and C. hemipterus will mate with each other given the opportunity, but the eggs then produced are usually sterile. In a 1988 study, 1 egg out of 479 was fertile and resulted in a hybrid, C. hemipterus × lectularius.[30][31]

Life stages

Bed bugs have six life stages (five immature and an adult stage).[32] They will shed their skins through a molting process (ecdysis) throughout multiple stages of their lives. The discarded outer shells look like clear, empty exoskeletons of the bugs themselves. Bed bugs must molt six times before becoming fertile adults.

Infestation

A side of a face showing red blotchy marks covering much of it.

Bed bugs can cause a number of health effects including skin rashes, psychological effects and allergic symptoms.[33] They are able to be infected by at least 28 human pathogens, but no study has clearly found that the insect is able to transmit the pathogen to a human being.[34] Bed bug bites or cimicosis may lead to a range of skin manifestations from no visible effects to prominent blisters.[35] Diagnosis involves both finding bed bugs and the occurrence of compatible symptoms.[33] Treatment involves the elimination of the insect but is otherwise symptomatic.[33] They have been found with methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus MRSA[36] and with vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VRE) but the significance of this is still unknown.[37]

Cause

Dwellings can become infested with bed bugs in a variety of ways, from:

  • Bugs and eggs that "hitchhiked in" on pets,[38] or on clothing and luggage
  • Infested items (such as furniture or clothing) brought in
  • Nearby dwellings or infested items, if there are easy routes (through duct work or false ceilings)
  • Wild animals (such as bats or birds)[39][40]
  • People visiting from a source of infestation; bed bugs, like roaches, are transferred by clothing, luggage, or a person's body.

Detection

An engorged female bed bug (Cimex lectularius) with eggs, discovered in the screw hole of a wooden bed frame

Bed bugs are elusive and usually nocturnal, which can make them hard to spot. They often lodge unnoticed in dark crevices, and eggs can be nestled in fabric seams. Aside from bite symptoms, signs include fecal spots, blood smears on sheets, and molts.

Bed bugs can be found singly, but often congregate once established. They usually remain close to hosts, commonly in or near beds or couches. Harborage areas can vary greatly, however, including luggage, vehicles, furniture and bedside clutter. Bed bugs may also nest near animals that have nested within a dwelling, such as bats, birds,[40] or rodents. The eggs of bed bugs are found in similar places where the bed bugs themselves are found, and are attached to surfaces by a sticky substance.

Attractant devices for detection use heat and/or carbon dioxide.[21][non-primary source needed]

Bed bug detection dog in New York

Bed bugs can be detected by their characteristic smell of cilantro, coriander, almonds or over-ripe raspberries. Bed bug detection dogs are trained to pinpoint infestations, with a possible accuracy rate of 97.5%, based upon tests conducted under controlled conditions by researchers.[11][41] The success rates in these tests may not reflect real world success rates of a pest companies’ dogs, operating with many more variables in the field.[42] Dog detection can often occur in minutes where a pest control practitioner might need an hour. In the United States, about 100 dogs are used to find bed bugs as of mid-2009.[43] A few companies are experimenting with high speed gas chromatography to detect bed bugs and other insect vermin.

Management

Eradication of bed bugs frequently requires a combination of pesticide and non-pesticide approaches.[6][7] Pesticides that have historically been found to be effective include: pyrethroids, dichlorvos and malathion.[7] Resistance to pesticides has increased significantly over time and there are concerns of negative health effects from their use.[6] Mechanical approaches such as vacuuming up the insects and heat treating or wrapping mattresses have been recommended.[6]

The carbamate insecticide propoxur is highly toxic to bed bugs, but in the United States the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has been reluctant to approve such an indoor use because of its potential toxicity to children after chronic exposure.[44]

Predators

Natural enemies of bed bugs include the masked hunter (also known as "masked bed bug hunter"),[45] cockroaches,[46] ants, spiders (particularly Thanatus flavidus), mites and centipedes. The Pharaoh ant's (Monomorium pharaonis) venom is lethal to bed bugs. Biological pest control is not very practical for eliminating bed bugs from human dwellings.[11]

Epidemiology

Bed bugs occur around the world.[47] Rates of infestations in developed countries, while decreasing from the 1930s to the 1980s, have increased dramatically since the 1980s.[6][7][47] Previously, they were common in the developing world, but rare in the developed world.[7] The increase in the developed world may have been caused by increased international travel, resistance to insecticides, and the use of new pest-control methods that do not affect bed bugs.[8][48] The fall in bed bug populations after the 1930s in the developed world is believed to be partly due to the use of DDT to kill cockroaches.[49] The invention of the vacuum cleaner and simplification of furniture design may have also played a role.[49] Others believe it might simply be the cyclical nature of the organism.[50]

The common bed bug (Cimex lectularius) is the species best adapted to human environments. It is found in temperate climates throughout the world. Other species include Cimex hemipterus, found in tropical regions, which also infests poultry and bats, and Leptocimex boueti, found in the tropics of West Africa and South America, which infests bats and humans. Cimex pilosellus and Cimex pipistrella primarily infest bats, while Haematosiphon inodora, a species of North America, primarily infests poultry.[51]

History

An 1860 engraving of parts of a bed bug. A. Intestines.—B. Antenna of the Male.—C Eye.—D. Haustellum, or Sucker, closed.—E. Side view of Sucker.—F. Under Part of Head.—G. Under Lip.—GG. Hair of the Tube, and outside Cases.—H. Egg-Bag.—I. Worm emerging from the Eggs

C. lectularius may have originated in the Middle East, in caves inhabited by bats and humans.[15]

Bed bugs were mentioned in ancient Greece as early as 400 BC, and were later mentioned by Aristotle. Pliny's Natural History, first published circa 77 AD in Rome, claimed bed bugs had medicinal value in treating ailments such as snake bites and ear infections. (Belief in the medicinal use of bed bugs persisted until at least the 18th century, when Guettard recommended their use in the treatment of hysteria.[52]) Bed bugs were first mentioned in Germany in the 11th century, in France in the 13th century and in England in 1583,[15] though they remained rare in England until 1670. Some in the 18th century believed bed bugs had been brought to London with supplies of wood to rebuild the city after the Great Fire of London (1666). Giovanni Antonio Scopoli noted their presence in Carniola (roughly equivalent to present-day Slovenia) in the 18th century.[53][54]

Traditional methods of repelling and/or killing bed bugs include the use of plants, fungi, and insects (or their extracts), such as black pepper,[55] black cohosh (Actaea racemosa), Pseudarthria hookeri, Laggera alata (Chinese yángmáo cǎo | 羊毛草),[11] Eucalyptus saligna oil,[56][57] henna (Lawsonia inermis or camphire),[58] "infused oil of Melolontha vulgaris" (presumably cockchafer), fly agaric (Amanita muscaria), Actaea spp. (e.g. black cohosh), tobacco, "heated oil of Terebinthina" (i.e. true turpentine), wild mint (Mentha arvensis), narrow-leaved pepperwort (Lepidium ruderale), Myrica spp. (e.g. bayberry), Robert geranium (Geranium robertianum), bugbane (Cimicifuga spp.), "herb and seeds of Cannabis", "opulus" berries (possibly maple or European cranberrybush), masked hunter bugs (Reduvius personatus), "and many others".[59]

In the mid-19th century, smoke from peat fires was recommended.[60]

Dusts have been used to ward off insects from grain storage for centuries, including "plant ash, lime, dolomite, certain types of soil, and diatomaceous earth (DE) or Kieselguhr".[61] Of these, diatomaceous earth in particular has seen a revival as a nontoxic (when in amorphous form) residual pesticide for bed bug abatement. Insects exposed to diatomaceous earth may take several days to die.[61]

Basket-work panels were put around beds and shaken out in the morning, in the UK and in France in the 19th century. Scattering leaves of plants with microscopic hooked hairs around a bed at night, then sweeping them up in the morning and burning them, was a technique reportedly used in southern Rhodesia and in the Balkans.[20]

Prior to the mid-twentieth century, bed bugs were very common. According to a report by the UK Ministry of Health, in 1933 there were many areas where all the houses had some degree of bed bug infestation.[62]

Bed bugs were a serious problem during World War II. General MacArthur commented that bed bugs are the "greatest nuisance insect problem ... at bases in the U.S"[63]

With the arrival of potent pesticides, famously DDT in the 1940s, bed bugs almost disappeared in Western countries.[64] However, bed bug infestations have resurged in recent years, for reasons which are not clear, but contributing factors may be complacency, increased resistance, bans on pesticides and increased international travel.[64] The current wave of bed bug infestations across America has spawned an industry for bed bug prevention, eradication and the reporting of infestations.[citation needed]

Society and culture

The saying "Good night, sleep tight, don't let the bed bugs bite." is common for parents to say to young children before they go to sleep.[65]

See also

  • List of parasites of humans

References

  1. ^ [No authors listed] (1996). "Oeciacus hirundinis (Lamarck, 1816)". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=107066. Retrieved 2010-09-15. 
  2. ^ Goddard J, deShazo R (April 2009). "Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites". JAMA 301 (13): 1358–66. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.405. PMID 19336711. 
  3. ^ a b c d e Reinhardt, Klaus; Siva-Jothy, Michael T. (Jan 2007). "Biology of the Bed Bugs (Cimicidae)". Annual Review of Entomology 52: 351–374. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.52.040306.133913. PMID 16968204. http://www.falw.vu.nl/nl/Images/siva%202006_tcm19-30750.pdf. Retrieved 26 May 2010. 
  4. ^ a b "What Are Bed Bugs? How To Kill Bed Bugs". Medical News Today. MediLexicon International Ltd. 20 Jul 2009. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/158065.php. Retrieved May 27, 2010. 
  5. ^ Kilpenen, O.; Vagn Jensen, K-M.; Kristensen, M.. Bed Bug Problems in Denmark, with a European Perspective. pp. 395–399. http://www.icup.org.uk/reports/ICUP858.pdf. Retrieved 27 May 2010. Robinson, WH; Bajomi, D. (eds) (2008). Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Urban Pests. Hungary: OOK-Press Kft. 
  6. ^ a b c d e f Jerome Goddard & Richard deShazo (2009). "Bed bugs (Cimex lectularius) and clinical consequences of their bites". Journal of the American Medical Association 301 (13): 1358–1366. doi:10.1001/jama.2009.405. PMID 19336711. http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/301/13/1358. 
  7. ^ a b c d e f Kolb A, Needham GR, Neyman KM, High WA (2009). "Bedbugs". Dermatol Ther 22 (4): 347–52. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8019.2009.01246.x. PMID 19580578. 
  8. ^ a b A Romero, MF Potter, DA Potter, KF Haynes (2007). "Insecticide Resistance in the Bed Bug: A Factor in the Pest’s Sudden Resurgence?". Journal of medical entomology 22 (2): 175–178. doi:10.1603/0022-2585(2007)44[175:IRITBB]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0022-2585. http://www.thermal-remediation.com/users/thermal_remediation/files/Insecticide%20Resistance%20in%20the%20Bed%20Bug%20-%20A%20Factor%20in%20the%20Pests%20Sudden%20Resurgence.pdf. Retrieved 2010-09-17. 
  9. ^ Capinera, John L. (17 Sep 2008). Encyclopedia of Entomology, Volume 1 (2nd ed.). Springer. pp. 405–417. ISBN 1402062427.  (Article: "Bed Bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae: Cimex spp.", Dini Miller, Virginia Tech University, VA
  10. ^ "Augustine Exterminators". Augustine Exterminators. http://www.augustineexterminators.com/galleryDetail.asp?gallery_id=26. Retrieved 2010-09-01. 
  11. ^ a b c d e IPM Practitioner, XXIX(3/4), March/April 2007 http://www.birc.org/MarApril2007.pdf
  12. ^ Benoit, J. B.; del Grosso, N.; Yoder, J. A.; Denlinger, D. L. (2007). "Resistance to dehydration between bouts of blood feeding in the bed bug, Cimex lectularius, is enhanced by water conservation, aggregation, and quiescence". American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 76 (5): 987–993. ISSN 0002-9637. PMID 17488928. http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/76/5/987. Retrieved 27 May 2010. 
  13. ^ Herrmann, J.; Adler, C.; Hoffmann, G.; Reichmuth, C. (1999). "Efficacy of controlled atmospheres on Cimex lectularius (L.) (Heteroptera: Cimicidae) and Argas reflexus Fab. (Acari: Argasidae)". In Robinson, Wm H.; Rettich, F.; Rambo, G.W.. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Urban Pests. Hronov, Czech Republic: Grafické Závody. p. 637. http://www.icup.org.uk/reports/ICUP511.pdf. Retrieved 31 May 2010.  (abstracted from a poster presentation in Prague, Jul 19-22)
  14. ^ Storey, Malcom. "CIMICIDAE (bed bugs)". BioImages: The Virtual Field-Guide (UK). bioimages.org.uk. http://www.bioimages.org.uk/html/t159942.htm. Retrieved 27 May 2010. [dead link]
  15. ^ a b c Mullen, Gary R.; Durden (8 May 2009). Medical and Veterinary Entomology, Second Edition. Academic Press. p. 80. ISBN 0123725003. 
  16. ^ "Family CIMICIDAE". Australian Biological Resources Study: Australian Faunal Directory. Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts (Australia). 2008. http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/abrs/online-resources/fauna/afd/taxa/CIMICIDAE. Retrieved 27 May 2010. 
  17. ^ Anderson, J.F.; Ferrandino, F.J.; McKnight, S.; Nolen, J.; Miller, J. (2009). "A carbon dioxide, heat and chemical lure trap for the bed bug, Cimex lectularius". Medical and Veterinary Entomology 23 (2): 99–105. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.2008.00790.x. http://www.insect-interceptor.com/anderson.pdf. Retrieved 2010-05-27 
  18. ^ Thomas I., Kihiczak G. G., Schwartz R. A. (2004). "Bed bug bites: a review". International Journal of Dermatology 43 (6): 430–433. doi:10.1111/j.1365-4632.2004.02115.x. PMID 15186224. 
  19. ^ Loye, Jenella E. (1985). "The life history and ecology of the cliff swallow bug, Oeciacus vicarius (Hemiptera : Cimicidae)". Ent med. et Parasitol (Cah. OSTROM) 32 (2): 133–139. ISSN 0029-7224. http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/cahiers/entomo/28405.pdf. Retrieved 26 May 2010.  N.B. This paper reports an abandoned swallow colony with Oeciacus vicarius surviving three consecutive years. However, that does not preclude the availability of other species (e.g., bats, other mammals, other birds) to fall back on for occasional feeding.
  20. ^ a b Boase, C. (2001). "Bedbugs — back from the brink". Pesticide Outlook 12 (4): 159–162. doi:10.1039/b106301b. http://www.rsc.org/delivery/_ArticleLinking/DisplayArticleForFree.cfm?doi=b106301b. Retrieved 2010-05-27 
  21. ^ a b Milius, Susan (16 Jan 2010). "Do-it-yourself bed-bug detector". Science News (Society for Science and the Public) 177 (2): 88. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/51188/title/Do-it-yourself_bed-bug_detector. Retrieved 27 May 2010.  citing Polanco-Pinzón, Andrea; et al. (2009). "Survivorship and growth potential of modern bed bug populations (Cimex lectularius) in the United States". Conference proceedings of 57th Annual Meeting (Entomological Society of America). 
  22. ^ Szalanski A.L., Austin J.W., McKern J.A., Steelman C.D., Miller D. (2006). "Time course analysis of bed bug, Cimex lectularius L., (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) blood meals using PCR". Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 23: 237–241. 
  23. ^ Szalanski, A.L., J.W. Austin, J.A. McKern, D. Miller, C.D. Steelman, and R.E. Gold. 2006. Isolation and characterization of human DNA from the bed bug, Cimex lectularius L. (Heteroptera: Cimicidae). Journal of Agricultural and Urban Entomology 23: 189-194.[1]
  24. ^ Carayon, J. 1959 Insémination par “spermalège” et cordon conducteur de spermatozoids chez Stricticimex brevispinosus Usinger (Heteroptera, Cimicidae). Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 60, 81–104.
  25. ^ Morrow E. H., Arnqvist G. (2003). "Costly traumatic insemination and a female counter-adaptation in bed bugs". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270 (1531): 2377–2381. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2514. PMC 1691516. PMID 14667354. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1691516. 
  26. ^ a b Reinhardt K., Naylor R., Siva-Jothy M. T. (2003). "Reducing a cost of traumatic insemination: female bed bugs evolve a unique organ". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 270 (1531): 2371–2375. doi:10.1098/rspb.2003.2515. PMC 1691512. PMID 14667353. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1691512. 
  27. ^ a b Ryne, C. In press. "Homosexual interactions in bed bugs: Alarm pheromones as male recognition signals." Animal Behaviour. doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.09.033 Cited in Cited in Science News, November 21st, 2009; Vol.176 #11 (p. 13) "Scent of alarm identifies male bed bugs" by Susan Milius. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/48927/title/Scent_of_alarm_identifies_male__bed_bugs
  28. ^ "This Bedbug's Life", The New York Times, 7 August 2010.
  29. ^ Harari A., Brockman H. J., Landholt P. J. (2000). "Intrasexual mounting in the beetle Diaprepes abbreviatus (L.)". Proceedings of the Royal Society B 267 (1457): 2071–2079. doi:10.1098/rspb.2000.1251. PMC 1690776. PMID 11416911. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1690776. 
  30. ^ Newberry, K. (July 1988). "Production of a hybrid between the bedbugs Cimex hemipterus and Cimex lectularius". Medical and Veterinary Entomology (The Royal Entomological Society) 2 (3): 297–300. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1988.tb00199.x. PMID 2980186. 
  31. ^ Walpole, Debra E.; Newberry, K. (July 1988). "A field study of mating between two species of bedbug in northern KwaZulu, South Africa". Medical and Veterinary Entomology (The Royal Entomological Society) 2 (3): 293–296. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1988.tb00198.x. PMID 2980185. 
  32. ^ [2] p.136
  33. ^ a b c Doggett SL, Russell R (November 2009). "Bed bugs — What the GP needs to know". Aust Fam Physician 38 (11): 880–4. PMID 19893834. 
  34. ^ Kolb, A., et al. "Bedbugs." Dermatologic Therapy 22.4 (2009): 347-352. CAB Abstracts. EBSCO. Web. 5 Dec. 2010.
  35. ^ James, William D.; Berger, Timothy G.; et al. (2006). Andrews' Diseases of the Skin: clinical Dermatology. Saunders Elsevier. ISBN 0-7216-2921-0. 
  36. ^ Meredith Melnick Thought Bed Bugs Were Bad? Try Bed Bugs With MRSA. TIME. Thursday, May 12, 2011 http://healthland.time.com/2011/05/12/thought-bed-bugs-were-bad-try-bed-bugs-with-mrsa/
  37. ^ Daniel J. DeNoon Do Bedbugs Spread MRSA? Drug-Resistant Bacteria Cultured From Bedbugs. WebMD. http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/news/20110511/do-bedbugs-spread-mrsa
  38. ^ Waldvogel, M., C Apperson. 2006 " Bed Bugs." http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/Urban/bedbugs.htm 21 November 2008
  39. ^ Potter, Michael F.. "BED BUGS". University of Kentucky College of Agriculture. http://www.ca.uky.edu/entomology/entfacts/ef636.asp. Retrieved 27 June2010. 
  40. ^ a b Steelman, C.D. 2000. Biology and control of bed bugs, Cimex lectularius, in poultry houses. Avian Advice 2: 10,15. [3]
  41. ^ Pfiester, Margie; Koehler, Philip G.; Pereira, Roberto M. (Aug 2008). "Ability of Bed Bug-Detecting Canines to Locate Live Bed Bugs and Viable Bed Bug Eggs". Entomological Society of America. http://www.bioone.org/doi/abs/10.1603/0022-0493%282008%29101%5B1389%3AAOBBCT%5D2.0.CO%3B2?journalCode=ecen#FN1. Retrieved 26 Aug 2010. 
  42. ^ Buckley, Cara, "Doubts Rise on Bedbug-Sniffing Dogs", The New York Times of New York, New York, p 1, November 12, 2010
  43. ^ {{Juliano, Michael C., "Dogs don't let the bed bugs bite", The Advocate of Stamford, Connecticut, p 1, August 21, 2009}}
  44. ^ New York Times. In Search of a Bedbug Solution. Published: September 4, 2010.
  45. ^ Hahn, Jeffrey (November 1999). "Masked hunters". Yard & Garden Briefs. University of Minnesota Extension Service: Yard & Garden Clinic. http://www.extension.umn.edu/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/e608maskedhunter.html. Retrieved 27 May 2010. 
  46. ^ Encyclopedia Americana, 1996 ed., v. 3, p. 413
  47. ^ a b Bed bugs, leeches and hookworm larvae in the skin., PMID 19362691  pmid 19362691
  48. ^ Owen, James (13 May 2004). "Bloodthirsty Bedbugs Stage Comeback in U.S., Europe". National Geographic News. National Geographic. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/05/0513_040513_bedbugs.html. Retrieved 31 May 2010. 
  49. ^ a b Krause-Parello CA, Sciscione P (April 2009). "Bedbugs: an equal opportunist and cosmopolitan creature". J Sch Nurs 25 (2): 126–32. doi:10.1177/1059840509331438. PMID 19233933. 
  50. ^ [4] p.131
  51. ^ Cranshaw, W.S.; Camper, M.; Peairs, F.B. (Feb 2009). "Bat Bugs and Bed Bugs". Colorado State University Extension. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/PUBS/INSECT/05574.html. Retrieved 27 May 2010. 
  52. ^ William Smith and Charles Anthon, A dictionary of Greek and Roman antiquities, 1847, pp. 252-253 http://books.google.com/books?id=41oMAAAAYAAJ&dq=cimex&source=gbs_navlinks_s
  53. ^ "That soon after the Fire of London, in some of the new-built Houses they were observ'd to appear, and were never noted to have been seen in the old, tho' they were then so few, as to be little taken notice of; yet as they were only seen in Firr-Timber, 'twas conjectured they were then first brought to England in them; of which most of the new Houses were partly built, instead of the good Oak destroy'd in the old." John Southall, A Treatise of Buggs [sic], pp. 16-17. http://www.archive.org/details/atreatisebuggss00soutgoog
  54. ^ "According to Scopoli's 2nd work (loc. cit.), found in Carniola and adjoining regions. According to Linnaeus' 2nd work on exotic insects (loc. cit.), before the era of health, already in Europe, seldom observed in England before 1670." Johann Friedrich Wolff and Johann Philip Wolff, Icones Cimicum descriptionibus illustratae, fourth fascicle (1804), p. 127. http://www.archive.org/details/iconescimicumdes00wolf
  55. ^ George Orwell, Down and Out in Paris and London, 1933
  56. ^ Schaefer, C.W.; Pazzini, A.R. (28 July 2000). Heteroptera of Economic Importance. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. 525. ISBN 0849306957. http://books.google.com/?id=AVcBI0GL-fQC&lpg=PP1&dq=Heteroptera%20of%20Economic%20Importance&pg=PA525#v=onepage&q=eucalyptus. 
  57. ^ Kambu, Kabangu; Di Phanzu, N.; Coune, Claude; Wauters, Jean-Noël; Angenot, Luc (1982). "Contribution à l'étude des propriétés insecticides et chimiques d'Eucalyptus saligna du Zaïre (Contribution to the study of insecticide and chemical properties of Eucalyptus saligna from Zaire ( Congo))". Plantes Médicinales et Phytothérapie (Paris: Jouve) 16 (1): 34–38. http://hdl.handle.net/2268/14438. 
  58. ^ Rictor Norton, Early Eighteenth-Century Newspaper Reports: A Sourcebook, "Getting Rid of Bed-Bugs", 18 November 2001, updated 30 November 2001 <http://grubstreet.rictornorton.co.uk/bedbugs.htm>
  59. ^ Johann Friedrich Wolff and Johann Philip Wolff, Icones Cimicum descriptionibus illustratae, fourth fascicle (1804), p. 127. http://www.archive.org/stream/iconescimicumdes00wolf#page/n163/mode/2up
  60. ^ (no byline) (17 June 1848). "Peat and peat mosses". Scientific American 3 (39): 307. http://digital.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/pageviewer-idx?c=scia&cc=scia&idno=scia0003-33&node=scia0003-33:1&frm=frameset&view=image&seq=309. Retrieved 26 May 2010. 
  61. ^ a b Hill, Stuart B. (May 1986). "Diatomaceous Earth: A Non Toxic Pesticide". Macdonald J. (Ste-Anne de Bellevue, QC: Macdonald College) 47 (2): 14–42. http://eap.mcgill.ca/publications/eap4.htm. Retrieved 26 May 2010. 
  62. ^ Boase, Clive J. (April 2004). "Bed-bugs – reclaiming our cities". Biologist 51: 1–4. http://scholar.google.com/scholar_alerts?view_op=create_alert_options. Retrieved 2010-06-07 
  63. ^ [5]
  64. ^ a b Newsweek (September 8, 2010). "The Politics of Bedbugs". http://www.newsweek.com/2010/09/08/conservatives-blame-environmentalists-for-bedbugs.html. Retrieved October 28, 2010. 
  65. ^ Berg, Rebecca. "Bed Bugs: The Pesticide Dilemma." Journal of Environmental Health 72.10 (2010): 32-35. Academic Search Premier. . Web. 30 Nov. 2010.

Further reading

  • Stephen Doggett. A Code of Practice for the Control of Bed Bugs in Australia. 3rd edition, ICPMR & AEPMA, Sydney Australia, May 2010. ISBN 1-74080-122-9. This is free from www.bedbug.org.au.
  • Stephen Doggett. A Bed Bug Management Policy for Accommodation Providers. Draft first ed, ICPMR, Sydney Australia, May 2010. This is free from www.bedbug.org.au.
  • David Cain, Richard Strand. Bed Bug Beware: An easy to understand guide to bed bugs, their prevention and control. Loughborough, United Kingdom: Foxhill Publishing, March 2009. ISBN 978-0-9562617-0-0
  • Larry Pinto, Richard Cooper, Sandy Kraft. Bed Bug Handbook: The Complete Guide to Bed Bugs and Their Control. Mechanicsville, Maryland: Pinto & Associates, December 2007. ISBN 978-0-9788878-1-0
  • Forsyth, Adrian. A Natural History of Sex: The Ecology and Evolution of Mating Behavior. Richmond Hill, Ontario: Firefly Books, 2001. ISBN 1-55209-481-2.
  • MacQuitty, Miranda, and Lawrence Mound. Megabugs: The Natural History Museum Book of Insects. New York: Random House Children's Books, 1995. ISBN 1-898304-37-8, ISBN 1-85868-045-X.
  • Goddard, Jerome A. The Physician’s Guide to Arthropods of Medical Importance (second edition).

External links


Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Нужно сделать НИР?

Look at other dictionaries:

  • bed|bug — bed bug or bed|bug «BEHD BUHG», noun. a small, flat, wingless, reddish brown, blood sucking insect found in houses and especially in beds; cimex. Its bite is painful …   Useful english dictionary

  • bed bug — noun bug of temperate regions that infests especially beds and feeds on human blood • Syn: ↑bedbug, ↑chinch, ↑Cimex lectularius • Hypernyms: ↑hemipterous insect, ↑bug, ↑hemipteran, ↑hemipteron …   Useful english dictionary

  • bed bug — /ˈbɛd bʌg/ (say bed bug) noun a small flat, wingless, hemipterous, bloodsucking insect, Cimex lectularius, that infests houses and especially beds; cimex …  

  • Bed bug infestation — Bed bug bites Classification and external resources Typical bed bug bites. DiseasesDB 31777 …   Wikipedia

  • Bed bug control techniques — Cimicidae or bed bugs (sometimes bedbugs), are small parasitic insects.The term usually refers to species that prefer to feed on human blood. Early detection and treatment are therefore critical in success of control. According to a survey, the… …   Wikipedia

  • Bed bug — A blood sucking bug in the Cimex family that lives hidden in bedding or furniture, coming out at night to bite their victims. * * * a bloodsucking insect of the genus Cimex. C. hemipterus of the tropics and C. lectularius of temperate regions… …   Medical dictionary

  • bed bug — insects which live in a bed …   English contemporary dictionary

  • bed bug — a bloodsucking insect of the genus Cimex. C. hemipterus of the tropics and C. lectularius of temperate regions have reddish flattened bodies and vestigial wings. They live and lay their eggs in the crevices of walls and furniture and emerge at… …   The new mediacal dictionary

  • bed bug —    Uku lio …   English-Hawaiian dictionary

  • bed·bug — /ˈbɛdˌbʌg/ noun, pl bugs [count] : a very small insect that lives in dirty beds and that bites people and sucks their blood …   Useful english dictionary

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”