Classical Chinese grammar

Classical Chinese grammar is systematically complex, and greatly differs from the grammar of modern vernacular Chinese.

Overview

Word order

Sentence formation

Nouns and nominal phrases

Verbs and verbal phrases

Function words

	Usage	Example	Translation
而	1. Used as a conjunction, which is equivalent to "also" 「又」, "and" 「而且」, "but" 「卻」, "if" 「如果」, and "followed by" 「接著」	學而時習之，不亦說乎。 (From Analects by Confucius and his disciples)	Learn and practice often (what you have learned), is it not a pleasure?
	2. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "your" 「你的
	3. An alternative for "can" 「能」

何	1. Used as Pronouns, often behind the modal particles 「哉」、「也」
	2. Used as "Why" 「為什麼」, "where" 「哪裡」, "what" 「什麼」
	3. Used as an adverb, or used in the first sentence before the verb, that question can be translated as "how" 「怎麼」

乎	1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「於」
	2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
	3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase	人不知而不慍，不亦君子乎。	Others fail to understand you, but you are not angered, is this not the mark of a gentleman?

乃	1. Used as a Preposition, which is equivalent to the word 「於」
	2. The modal particle to express doubt, praise, surprise, or to highlight the word in front
	3. To express a question, when placed at the end of a phrase

乎	1. As "then", "indeed", "after all", or "namely"	乃懼，復造善脈者診之。(From Chapter 23 of Volume 2 of Pu Songling's 聊齋志異)
	2. As a pronoun, "you", "your"

爲	1. Used as a preposition, that the object, which is equivalent to "substitute for", "give", "once upon a time", "opposed", "with", "with regards to"
	2. Used as a preposition, pointed out that the reason for the equivalent of "because"
	3. Used as a preposition, that the passive, which is equivalent to "be"
	4. Used as a verb, which is equivalent to "make", "for", "become"
	5. Used as a preposition, which is equivalent to "at", "When"
	6. Used as a modal particle, often with the pronouns 「何」、「焉」

焉	1. The word used as a tone for the end of the sentence, which is equivalent to 「啊」、「呢」	生而有疾惡焉，順是，故殘賊生而忠信亡焉。
	2. For the tone of the words express a standstill for the sentence
	3. Used as a pronoun, which is equivalent to "he", "them", "it", "here" and "where"
	4. Used as pronouns, equivalent to 「豈」 (how/what), 「如何」 (what)

以	1. Used as a preposition to indicate reason, equivalent to "because" and "owing to"	故常無，欲以觀其妙。(Laozi)
	2. Used as a preposition to indicate means, equivalent to 「用」、「將」、「拿」
	3. Used as a preposition to introduce action, where activity takes place within a certain period and location, equivalent to "at", "from"
	4. Used as a conjunction - to indicate juxtaposition, a linked relationship, objective, or causality.

其

Used as a pronoun. Can be used as a third person pronoun ("him" 「他」, "his" 「他的」, "they" 「他們」, or "their" 「他們的」), objective pronoun ("it" 「它」, "its" 「它的」, "those" 「它們」, the possessive of "those" 「它們的」, or "one of" 「其中」) or demonstrative pronoun ("this" 「這」/「這個」, "these" 「這些」, "that" 「那」/「那個」, "those" 「那些」). Also can be used to distinguish tone, such as words like "approximately" 「大概」, "may" 「也許」, "I think" 「恐怕」, "could" 「還能」, "how" 「怎麼」 or "could it be that" 「難道」. To indicate something in first person, 「己」 is used, for example, 「己身也」.

且	"And", "Furthermore"
若	"If", "Assuming that"	夕惕若厲。	In the evening <she is> careful as if assuming hardship.
所	"That which"
也	Used at the end of the sentence to provide a positive, emphasizing or doubtful tone. If used within the sentence, indicates a pause to delay the mood.	其西有大山，天下至高者也。	In the west there is a large mountain, the tallest under heaven (on Earth).
因	"Because"
于	Used as a preposition for place, reason; expression of action behaviour and the introduction of premises, time, motion, target, location, relationship between people, introduction to the object of comparison or analogy.
與	"and", "with", "to", "for", "give"
則	Used as a conjunction - translated as "just", "still, but...", "however", "in that case"
者	Particle which refers to people, objects, times, locations, etc. When placed after the subject, indicates a slight pause, or expresses determination.
之	Possessive marker ('s) for personal pronouns
曰	Speech indicator, similar to "says" or "said".	翁笑曰：「平昔不相往還，何由遺魂吾家？」
亦	Also; too.
故	Therefore, Cause, Reason, Happening, Instance	何以故？	Why is this?

Note that for the descriptions provided above, English equivalents are provided in double quotation marks (""), while equivalents in vernacular Chinese are provided in hooked brackets (「」).

See also

• Chinese adjectives
• Chinese grammar
• Chinese particles
• Chinese pronouns
• Chinese verbs
• Classical Chinese
• Vernacular Chinese

Sources

• 《新高中文言手册》 （1998年 北京华书）
• 《新华字典》 （第10版）

External links

• Chinese Notes: 古文入门 Introduction to Classical Chinese