Norway–Russia border

The border between Russia and Norway, formerly the border between the Soviet Union and the NATO member state (from 1949) Norway, consists of a 196 kilometres (122 mi) long land borderline, from the Finnish border to the coastline at Grense Jakobselv in northernmost Norway and north-west Russia, and a maritime border which extends into the Arctic Ocean. The Norwegian side of the border is located entirely within the county of Finnmark.

While the border area was regarded as peripheral within both Norway and Russia in much of its history, it became of high military importance during the Cold War. During this period, it was Norway's best guarded border, and Norway maintained a large military presence on the border and in the county of Finnmark, which was considered to be a buffer zone against the Soviet Union by NATO. There were plans for evacuating the whole county using scorched earth tactics in the event of a Soviet invasion.

Geopolitical context

Finnmark in Norway

Between the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the NATO enlargement in 2004, Norway was the only NATO country which shared a land border with Russia (during the Cold War, Turkey too shared a border with the Soviet Union). Norway's special position, as both NATO member and neighbor of Russia, ensured that Russia–Norway border relations was a relevant matter for other NATO allies. After the end of the Cold War, writes a political scientist^[who?], a "decline in allied interest" took place, leaving "Norway somewhat alone in managing its relationship with Russia".^[1]

Land border

From Jakobselva

The first border agreement that is known between today's Russia and Norway dates back to 1326, and the Novgorod Republic. The agreement, a peace treaty, was concerning taxation in the border area.^[2]

The current border between Norway and Russia follows the old Soviet-Norwegian border. Starting from the Three-country border cairn, the border follows the river Pasvikelva until it deviates near Boris Gleb (Finnish: Kolta Köngäs). The last part of the border follows the river Jakobselva until its outlet into the Varangerfjord at Grense Jakobselv.^[3]

Finnish areas ceded to the Soviet Union due to the Moscow Armistice of 1944 and the Paris Peace Treaties, 1947

Between 1920 and 1944 there was no land border between Norway and the Soviet Union as the Treaty of Tartu awarded Petsamo to Finland as its land corridor to the Barents Sea. In the Moscow Truce 1944 Finland had to cede Petsamo to the Soviet Union.

During World War II northern Norway served as as the staging area for the German attack on Murmansk. The Soviet Union made an excursion over the border in 1944, specifically with the Petsamo–Kirkenes Offensive which aimed to extinguish the German military forces in the area. Soviet forces took the town of Kirkenes, which had been evacuated by the Germans who used scorched earth tactics, on 24 October 1944; Soviet troops continued west to Tana. The troops withdrew in September 1945.

Cold War

During the Cold War, the Soviet Union was considered Norway's main enemy and Norway maintained a large military presence on the border. Norwegian government plans for the defense of Finnmark against the Soviet Union during the Cold War were based on using scorched earth tactics in the event of the Soviets crossing the border.^[4] The whole county of Finnmark was regarded by NATO as a buffer zone.^[5] Norwegian military leaders regarded the population in the county as potentially unreliable, and did not trust that they would be willing to defend their country against intruders, on account of the county's special ethnic and political composition (Sami people and a higher number of communist sympathizers than elsewhere).^[6] A Soviet border provocation on 7 June 1968, which has been regarded as serious by historians, together with the invasion of Czechoslovakia that year and a general increase in Soviet military activity on the Norwegian border, contributed to a large increase in the funding for the Norwegian military presence on the Norwegian-Soviet border in Finnmark.^[7]

Nevertheless, in spite of the decades of cold war on the border, it has been said that the Russia–Norway border is the only one of Russia's borders where an open war between the two bordering countries has not taken place.^[8]

Border crossing

The current border crossing at Storskog

There is only one legal crossing point, at Storskog (Norway) and Boris Gleb (Russia), on the E105 road some 15 km east of Kirkenes.

Marine border

The border between Norway and the Soviet Union in the Varangerfjord were agreed upon in a treaty from 1957.^[9] Negotiations on the outside marine border were initiated in 1970. Norway claimed, in accordance with the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Article 15 and the Convention on the High Seas, that the border should follow the midline principle, the border being defined by midpoints between the nearest land area or islands, as is normal practice internationally. The Soviet Union claimed, based on a decision by Joseph Stalin from 1926, which was not recognized by any other country than the Soviet Union,^[10] that a "sector principle" should apply, such that the border should follow meridian lines. Most of the disputed area was within what would normally be considered Norwegian according to the relevant international treaties. In 1975 the two countries agreed upon a moratorium prohibiting exploration for oil and gas in the disputed area.

In 1978 a temporary agreement regulating fishery in a 60,000 km² (23,000 sq mi) zone, named the Grey Zone (Norwegian: Gråsonen) in some documents from the same time, was signed, which has since been renewed annually.^[11] From the Norwegian side, the agreement was negotiated by Labour politician Jens Evensen and his protegé Arne Treholt, who was later exposed as a Soviet spy and convicted of treason. The agreement was highly controversial in Norway. Many Norwegians believed that Evensen and Treholt gave too many concessions to the Soviet Union, and that they were motivated by Soviet sympathies. The agreement caused consternation in parliament and government, and Evensen had difficulty getting it accepted by his own government, where many held the opinion that he had exceeded his authority.^[12] The opposition parties criticized Evensen of using the term "Grey Zone," because it implied that Norway did not maintain its claim on rightful Norwegian territory in their opinon.^[13] In an interview with Danmarks Radio in 1990, Treholt, who was then serving a 20-year sentence, admitted that he had acted as an informer for the Soviet negotiators.^[14] The arrest and conviction of Treholt in 1984-1985 had a devastating effect on Evensen, who withdrew completely from public life in Norway.^[15] In 1989, Evensen compared Treholt to Vidkun Quisling.^[16]

Delimitation agreement

Signing of the Russian-Norwegian Treaty on Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean in Murmansk on 15 September 2010

On 27 April 2010, during a meeting in Oslo, Russian President Dmitri Medvedev and Norwegian Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg announced that the territorial dispute in the Barents Sea was settled.^[17][18] The agreement is a compromise, which divides a disputed area of around 175,000 km² (68,000 sq mi) into two approximately equally sized parts.^[11] The agreement was signed on 15 September 2010 in Murmansk by President of Russia Dmitry Medvedev and Prime Minister of Norway Jens Stoltenberg.^[19] President Medvedev highlighted the importance of the agreement, saying that:

"Delineating the border in the region where our interests meet is a key step forward. This will allow us to solve joint tasks constructively, as well as to work on economic development projects."

—Dmitry Medvedev on 15 September 2010^[20]

On 8 February 2011, the Parliament of Norway unanimously approved the treaty. The debate lasted only an hour, and all representatives of Norwegian political parties praised the agreement.^[21] On 30 March, Russia's State Duma also voted in support of ratification, despite strong opposition from communist representatives.^[22] On 8 April 2011, President Dmitry Medvedev signed a law ratifying the treaty. The law was titled Federal Law On Ratification of the Treaty between the Russian Federation and the Kingdom of Norway on Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean.^[19] After ratification by both countries, there was defined to be a 30-day waiting period before it would come into force.^[23]

On 7 July 2011, the treaty entered force, ending the 44-year old border dispute.^[24] The treaty stipulates conditions for fishing cooperation, providing for the retention of the mechanism to jointly regulate fishing in the Barents Sea. The treaty also defines the principles of cooperation in hydrocarbons deposits exploration. A deposit which is crossed by the maritime border may only be exploited as a whole subject to a bilateral agreement.^{[19][25][26][23][27]}

The border treaty is economically significant, as it makes possible to conduct geological surveys and hydrocarbons drilling in the formerly disputed 175,000 km² area, which is estimated to contain up to 6.8 billion tons of oil and gas.^[24] The area is located west of Shtokman field, one of the world's largest natural gas fields. According to Anatoly Zolutukhin, vice president of World Petroleum Council, it is "a very prolific area — maybe even more prolific than Shtokman."^[24] Norwegian company Petroleum Geo-Services has been contracted to begin surveying the Norwegian part of the area already this summer.^[24] Seismic acquisition in Norway's new maritime zone started on 8 July 2011, and is scheduled to be completed in summer 2012.^[28]

References

1. ^ Nyhamar, Jostein (2004). "Secutity Policies From Constraint to Choice". In Heidar, Knut. Nordic Politics. Comparative Perspectives. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. pp. 241–242. ISBN 82-15-00628-0. 
2. ^ Vassdal, Trond O. (14 October 2008). "sammendrag vedrørende riksgrensen Norge – Russland" (in Norwegian). Norwegian Mapping and Cadastre Authority. http://www.statkart.no/?module=Files;action=File.getFile;ID=34271. Retrieved 29 April 2010. 
3. ^ Henriksen, Petter, ed. "Grense-Jakobselv" (in Norwegian). Store norske leksikon. Oslo: Kunnskapsforlaget. http://www.snl.no/Grense-Jakobselv. Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
4. ^ http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/nrk_troms_og_finnmark/finnmark/4251874.html
5. ^ http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/nrk_troms_og_finnmark/finnmark/4255838.html
6. ^ http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/nrk_troms_og_finnmark/finnmark/4255122.html
7. ^ http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/distrikt/nrk_troms_og_finnmark/finnmark/4255838.html
8. ^ Nordsletten, Øyvind (26 March 2007). "Utviklingen i forholdet Norge – Russland med særlig vekt på nordområdene" (in Norwegian). Government.no. http://www.regjeringen.no/nb/dep/ud/dep/org/kontakt/ambassador-oyvind-nordsletten/taler/russland.html?id=463298. Retrieved 29 April 2010. 
9. ^ "Agreement between Norway and the Soviet Union concerning the sea frontier between Norway and the Soviet Union in the Varangerfjord". 29 November 1957. http://www.lovdata.no/cgi-wift/udoffles?doc=tra-1957-02-15-001.txt&. Retrieved 29 April 2010. 
10. ^ http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/1.7064395
11. ^ ^{a b} "Gjennombrudd i Barentshavet" (in Norwegian). Dagens Næringsliv: pp. 6–13. 28 April 2010. 
12. ^ http://www.dagbladet.no/2010/04/27/nyheter/innenriks/utenriks/russland/norge/11471787/
13. ^ Kåre Willoch, Myter og virkelighet, Cappelen Damm, 2002, ISBN 9788202204600
14. ^ Stein Vale, Teppefall i Treholtsaken, Cappelen Damm, 2009, ISBN 9788202299880, pp. 35-36 and p. 135
15. ^ Berit Ruud Retzer, Jens Evensen: Makten, myten og mennesket, 1999, ISBN 82-995068-0-8
16. ^ Alf Bjarne Johnsen, "Ødela tenner av Treholt-arrestasjonen", Verdens Gang, 16 September 1999 p. 14
17. ^ Dyomkin, Denis; Fouche, Gwladys (27 April 2010). "UPDATE 3-Russia and Norway strike Arctic sea border deal". Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE63Q14D20100427?type=marketsNews. Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
18. ^ Gibbs, Walter (27 April 2010). "Russia and Norway Reach Accord on Barents Sea". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/28/world/europe/28norway.html. Retrieved 27 April 2010. 
19. ^ ^{a b c} Law on ratification of treaty between Russia and Norway on maritime delimitation Kremlin.ru
20. ^ Russia and Norway sign maritime border agreement BBC News, 15 September 2011
21. ^ Unanimously approved Barents Observer, 8 February 2011
22. ^ "Russian upper house ratifies Norway border deal". RIA Novosti. 2011-03-30. http://en.rian.ru/russia/20110330/163282362.html. 
23. ^ ^{a b} "Treaty between the Kingdom of Norway and the Russian Federation concerning Maritime Delimitation and Cooperation in the Barents Sea and the Arctic Ocean". http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/SMK/Vedlegg/2010/avtale_engelsk.pdf. Retrieved 8 July 2011. 
24. ^ ^{a b c d} Amos, Howard (7 July 2011). "Arctic Treaty With Norway Opens Fields". The Moscow Times. http://www.themoscowtimes.com/business/article/arctic-treaty-with-norway-opens-fields/440178.html. Retrieved 7 July 2011. 
25. ^ "Overenskomst mellom Kongeriket Norge og Den Russiske Føderasjon om maritim avgrensning og samarbeid i Barentshavet og Polhavet" (in Norwegian). http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/UD/Vedlegg/Folkerett/avtale_norsk.pdf. Retrieved 8 July 2011. 
26. ^ "Договор между Российской Федерацией и Королевством Норвегия о разграничении морских пространств и сотрудничестве в Баренцевом море и Северном Ледовитом океане" (in Russian). http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/SMK/Vedlegg/2010/avtalen_russisk.pdf. Retrieved 8 July 2011. 
27. ^ "Map". http://www.regjeringen.no/upload/UD/kart/kart_100914_ny.gif. Retrieved 8 July 2011. 
28. ^ "Seismic acquisition start-up in the Barents Sea East – 8 July". Norwegian Petroleum Directorate. http://www.npd.no/en/news/News/2011/Seismic-acquisition-start-up-in-the-Barents-Sea-East--8-July/. Retrieved 8 July 2011. 

External links

• Full text of the 2010 maritime border treaty