Outdoor education

Outdoor education usually refers to organized learning that takes place in the outdoors. Outdoor education programs sometimes involve residential or journey-based experiences in which students participate in a variety of adventurous challenges in the form of outdoor activities such as hiking, climbing, canoeing, ropes courses, and group games. Outdoor education draws upon the philosophy, theory, and practices of experiential education and environmental education.

A group of Outward Bound participants with physical disabilities after completing a ropes course, c. 1996.

An Outward Bound excursion at Lake Superior Provincial Park, Ontario, Canada.

Scope

Definitions

Outdoor education can be simply defined as experiential learning in, for, or about the outdoors. The term ‘outdoor education’, however, is used quite broadly to refer to a range of organized activities which take place in a variety of ways in predominantly outdoor environments. Common definitions of outdoor education are difficult to achieve because interpretations vary according to culture, philosophy, and local conditions.

Outdoor education is often referred to as synonymous with adventure education, adventure programming, and outdoor learning, outdoor school, adventure therapy, adventure recreation, adventure tourism, expeditionary learning, challenge education, experiential education, environmental education, Forest schools and wilderness education. Consensus about the meaning of these terms are also difficult to achieve. However, outdoor education often uses or draws upon these related elements and/or informs these areas. The hallmark of outdoor education is its focus on the "outdoor" side of this education; whereas adventure education would focus on the adventure side and environmental education would focus on environmental. Wilderness education involves expeditions into wilderness "where man is but a visitor." For more information, see Outdoor education definitions (Wikibooks).

Education outside the classroom

"Education outside the classroom" describes school curriculum learning, other than with a class of students sitting in a room with a teacher and books. It encompasses biology field trips and searching for insects in the school garden, as well as indoor activities like observing stock control in a local shop, or visiting a museum. It is a concept currently enjoying a revival, because of the recognition of benefits from the more active style. The Education and Skills Committee^[1] of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom has reported that it brings history and art to life, develops social skills, and clearly enhances geography and science.,^[2] while DfES has prepared practical guidelines for outdoor activities.^[3]

Despite the evidence supporting an extension of outdoor learning for children, there are a number of obstacles in the way. One of these obstacles is risk aversion amongst teachers, parents and others, raising reluctance to such diverse and physical tasks. The journalist Tim Gill has written about parental and institutional risk aversion affecting many activities with children in his book "No Fear".^[4] Another obstacle is the perceived high cost of facilitating outdoor learning. Creating an outdoor learning environment needn't cost a great deal, however. The UK Early Years Framework Stage, which outlines best practice in Early Years teaching, asserts that: "Outdoor learning is more effective when adults focus on what children need to be able to do rather than what children need to have. An approach that considers experiences rather than equipment places children at the centre of learning and ensures that individual children's learning and developmental needs are taken account of and met effectively"^[5]

Linda Tallent, a UK-based educational consultant who has worked extensively with schools to develop their outdoor spaces into learning environments, agrees. She believes that by focussing on activities and skill development, it is possible to develop an outdoor learning curriculum on a 'shoe string'.^[6] She cites a comment by Will Nixon, who reminds readers that 'Using the real world is the way learning has happened for 99.9% of human existence. Only in the last hundred years have we put it into a little box called a classroom.'.^[7] Tallent also refers to evidence from a number of studies that the most effective way of learning is through participation, and calls on educators to make a special effort to create opportunities for children to participate in their learning.

Aims

Some typical aims of outdoor education are to:

• learn how to overcome adversity
• enhance personal and social development
• develop a deeper relationship with nature.

Outdoor education spans the three domains of self, others, and the natural world. The relative emphasis of these three domains varies from one program to another. An outdoor education program can, for example, emphasize one (or more) of these aims to:

• teach outdoor survival skills
• improve problem solving skills
• reduce recidivism
• enhance teamwork
• develop leadership skills
• understand natural environments
• promote spirituality

History

Field-trip - school children outdoors listening to man, c. 1899, USA

Modern outdoor education owes its beginnings to a number of separate initiatives. Organized camping was evident in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century in Europe, the UK, the USA, Australia, and New Zealand. The Scouting movement, established in 1907 by Robert Baden-Powell, employs non-formal education with an emphasis on practical outdoor activities. The first Outward Bound centre at Aberdovey in Wales was established during the Second World War. The Forest schools of Denmark are examples of European programs with similar aims and objectives.

A key outdoor education pioneer was Kurt Hahn, a German educator who founded schools such as the Schule Schloss Salem in Germany, Gordonstoun School in Scotland, Atlantic College in Wales, the United World Colleges movement, the Duke of Edinburgh Award scheme (which emphasizes community service, craftsmanship skills, physical skill, and outdoor expeditions), and the Outward Bound movement.

The second half of the twentieth century saw rapid growth of outdoor education in all sectors (state, voluntary, and commercial) with an ever-widening range of client groups and applications. In this period Outward Bound spread to over 40 countries around the world, including the USA in the 1960s. Other US based outdoor education programs include Project Adventure and the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS). Project Adventure focuses on day use of ropes courses. NOLS uses the outdoor setting to train leaders for outdoor programs and for other settings including training every new US astronaut and 10% of the US Naval Academy. The Association for Experiential Education is a professional association for "experiential" educators. The Wilderness Education Association (WEA) is a consortium of college outdoor education programs with a standard curriculum based on an academic model. (See also North America in the Around the World section.)

A history of outdoor education in the UK has been documented by Lyn Cook (1999) .^[8] and a history of outdoor education in New Zealand has been published in Pip Lynch's 'Camping in the Curriculum' (2007).^[9] Also see History of outdoor education.

Philosophy and theory

Philosophy and theory about outdoor education tends to emphasise the effect of natural environments on human beings, the educative role of stress and challenge, and experiential learning.

One view is that participants are at their "rawest" level when outdoors because they are "stripped" of many of the conveniences of modern life. Participants can become more aware that they are part of a greater ecosystem and are not as bound by social customs and norms. In essence participants can be true to themselves and more able to see others as people regardless of race, class, religion etc. Outdoor education also helps instill the basic elements of teamwork because participants often need to work together and rely on others. For many people a high ropes course or an outdoor activity may stretch their comfort zone and cause them to challenge themselves physically which in turn can lead to challenging oneself mentally.

The roots of modern outdoor education can be found in the philosophical work of:

• Comenius
• John Dewey
• William James
• Aldo Leopold
• John Locke
• John Muir
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Henry David Thoreau
• Pestalozzi

Foundational work on the philosophy of outdoor education includes work by:

• Kurt Hahn
• Willi Unsoeld

A wide range of social science and specific outdoor education theories and models have been applied in an effort to better understand outdoor education. Amongst the key theoretical models or concepts are:

• Experiential education theories
• Group development theories
• the Outward Bound Process Model^[10]
• Stress, optimal arousal, comfort zone, and psychological flow theories
• Psychoevolutionary theory and the Biophilia hypothesis

Around the world

Outdoor education occurs, in one form or another, in most if not all countries of the world. However, it can be implemented very differently, depending on the cultural context. Some countries, for example, view outdoor education as synonymous with environmental education, whilst other countries treat outdoor education and environmental education as distinct. Modern forms of outdoor education are most prevalent in UK, USA, Australia, New Zealand, Europe and to some extent Asia and Africa. A map is available of locations of outdoor education organisations, facilities, and people [1]. For more information, see Outdoor education around the world (Wikibooks).

Research and critical views

There is much anecdotal evidence about benefits of outdoor education experiences; teachers, for example, often speak of the improvement they have in relationships with students following a trip. However, hard evidence showing that outdoor education has a demonstrable long-term effect on behaviour or educational achievement is harder to identify; this may be in part because of the difficulty involved in conducting studies which separate out the effects of outdoor education on meaningful outcomes.

A major meta-analysis of 97 empirical studies indicated a positive overall effect of adventure education programs on outcomes such as self-concept, leadership, and communication skills.^[11] This study also indicated that there appeared to be ongoing positive effects. The largest empirical study of the effects of outdoor education programs (mostly Outward Bound programs) found small-moderate short-term positive impacts on a diverse range of generic life skills, with the strongest outcomes for longer, expedition-based programs with motivated young adults, and partial long-term retention of these gains.^[12]

In "Adventure in a Bun", Chris Loynes^[13] has suggested that outdoor education is increasingly an entertainment park consumption experience. In a paper entitled "The Generative Paradigm",^[14] Loynes has also called for an increase in “creativity, spontaneity and vitality". These dialogues indicate a need for those working in outdoor education to examine assumptions to ensure that their work is educational (Hovelynck & Peeters, 2003)^{[citation needed]}.

Outdoor education has been found more beneficial to those students who find classroom learning more challenging^{[citation needed]}. This may be due to a non-academic family background, a personal psychological trait such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or because they are boys.^[15]

When German children from forest kindergartens went to primary school, teachers observed a significant improvement in reading, writing, mathematics, social interactions and many other areas.^[16]

Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for learning (EIC) is the foundation of a substantial report^[17] which found benefits in learning outside the classroom on standardized measures of academic achievement in reading, writing, math, science, and social studies; reduced discipline problems; and increased enthusiasm for learning and pride in accomplishments.

Trends

There are several important trends and changing circumstances for outdoor education, including:

• Climate change
• Environment
• Nature deficit disorder
• Physical fitness
• Rationalization (sociology)
• Risk aversion
• Risk management
• Standards-based education reform

See also

Wiki sister projects

• Outdoor education (wikibooks)
• Outdoor education (wikiversity)

Activities

• Abseiling
• Adventure park
• Backpacking
• Camping
• Canoeing
• Geocaching
• Kayaking
• Nature study
• Questing
• Rafting
• Rock climbing
• Ropes course
• Sail training
• Snowboarding
• Orienteering / Wayfinding

Associations

• American Camp Association
• Association for Experiential Education
• Association of Outdoor Recreation & Education

Organizations

• The Duke of Edinburgh's Award - award for personal achievement, including outdoor activities
• National Outdoor Leadership School
• Nature's Classroom - environmental education program in the USA
• Boston Schoolyard Initiative - elementary school based outdoor environmental education
• Outdoor Education Group - educational organization in Australia
• Outward Bound - international educational organization
• Solid Rock Outdoor Ministries - Christian Outdoor Leadership and Education organization.

People

• Daniel Garvey - teaches and researches in the area of experiential education
• Kurt Hahn - German educator responsible for the creation of Outward Bound.
• Paul Petzoldt - mountaineer, founder of NOLS, and co-founder of Wilderness Education Association

Topics

• Adventure recreation
• Adventure therapy
• Adventure travel
• Deep ecology
• Ecopsychology
• Educational progressivism
• Environmental psychology
• Expeditionary education
• Experiential education
• Experiential learning
• Forest schools
• Green exercise
• Minimal impact code
• Natural environment
• Outbound Management Development Programmes
• Rite of passage
• Summer camp
• Wilderness therapy
• Forest kindergarten

References

1. ^ Education and Skills Committee, House of Commons
2. ^ . House of Commons. 2005. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200405/cmselect/cmeduski/120/120.pdf title=Education Outside the Classroom. 
3. ^ DfES's leaflet on Learning Outside the Classroom
4. ^ Gill, Tim (2007). No fear: Growing up in a Risk Averse society. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. p. 81. ISBN 9781903080085. http://www.gulbenkian.org.uk/media/item/1266/223/No-fear-19.12.07.pdf#page=28. 
5. ^ Early Years Framework Stage 'Effective Practice: Outdoor Learning", 2007 http://eyfs.keymedia.info/resources/downloads/3.3b_ep.pdf
6. ^ Linda Tallent, 'Outdoor Learning', 2007
7. ^ Will Nixon, 'Letting Nature Shape Childhood', The Amicus Journal, Fall 1997, in Linda Tallent 'Outdoor Learning' 2007
8. ^ Cook L. (1999). The 1944 Education Act and outdoor education: from policy to practice. History of Education, 28(2), 157-172. ISBN 0-473-10583-7
9. ^ Lynch, P. (?). Camping in the Curriculum: A History of Outdoor Education in New Zealand Schools. PML publications, Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand.
10. ^ Walsh, V., & Golins, G. L. (1976). The exploration of the Outward Bound process. Denver, CO: Colorado Outward Bound School.
11. ^ Hattie, J. A., Marsh, H. W., Neill, J. T. & Richards, G. E. (1997). Adventure education and Outward Bound: Out-of-class experiences that have a lasting effect. Review of Educational Research, 67, 43-87.
12. ^ Neill, J. T. (2008). Enhancing personal effectiveness: Impacts of outdoor education programs. PhD thesis. Sydney: University of Western Sydney.
13. ^ Loynes, Chris (1998). "Adventure in a Bun". Journal of Experiential Education 21 (1): 35–39. http://www.thresholdconsulting.co.uk/articlesPDF/bun.pdf. 
14. ^ Loynes, Chris (2002). "The Generative Paradigm". JAEOL 2 (2). http://www.thresholdconsulting.co.uk/articlesPDF/generative.pdf#page=13. 
15. ^ Sax L. (2001) Reclaiming Kindergarten: Making Kindergarten Less Harmful to Boys in Psychology of Men & Masculinity (2001) 2.1 pp3-12
16. ^ Gorges R. Waldkindergartenkinder Im Ersten Schuljahr (in German)
17. ^ Lieberman, Gerald A.; Hoody, Linda L. (1998). Closing the Achievement Gap. State Education and Environment Round Table. http://www.seer.org/extras/execsum.pdf. 

External links

Resources

• OutdoorEd.com
• Outdoor Education Research & Evaluation Center
• Greenman Bushcraft
• Nature's Secret Larder

Associations

• Association for Environmental and Outdoor Education
• Institute for Outdoor Learning
• Association of Outdoor Recreation & Education

Directories

• Recreation: Outdoors: Schools and Education at the Open Directory Project
• Science: Environment: Education: Outdoor Programs at the Open Directory Project

Discussion

• Outdoor Education (Google Group)

Articles

• Outdoor education apologetic - Defends outdoor education as a vital need in public education (Brookhaven Outdoor Education Center)
• Outdoors is great - argues for the benefits of the outdoors (The Guardian)
• Out of bounds - examines the 'decline' in school trips in the UK (The Guardian)
• Obituary of Kenneth Oldham - about one of the pioneers of outdoor education in the UK, who also wrote the first guide to the Pennine Way (The Guardian)
• Outdoor education: Aspects of good practice - Office of Standards in Education, 2004 (UK)
• Research into residential opportunities available for young people through schools (UK)
• What is outdoor learning? A brief guide to outdoor learning (Institute for Outdoor Learning, UK)
• Outdoor education and environmental responsibility - ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools.