Kisaeng

Infobox Korean name


hangul=기생
hanja=linktext|妓|生
mr=kisaeng
rr=gisaeng

Kisaeng (also spelled gisaeng), sometimes called ginyeo (기녀), were female Korean entertainers. Kisaeng are artists who work to entertain others, such as the Yangbans and kings.

First appearing in the Goryeo Dynasty, kisaeng were legally entertainers of the government, required to perform various functions for the state. Many were employed at court, but they were also spread throughout the country. They were carefully trained, and frequently accomplished in the fine arts, poetry, and prose, although their talents were often ignored due to their inferior social status.

Women of the kisaeng class performed various roles, although they were all of the same low status in the eyes of yangban society. Aside from entertainment, these roles included medical care and needlework. In some cases, such as at army bases, kisaeng were expected to fill several such roles.

Kisaeng, both historic and fictional, play an important role in Korean conceptions of the traditional culture of the Joseon Dynasty. Some of Korea's oldest and most popular stories, such as the tale of Chunhyang, feature kisaeng as heroines. Although the names of most real kisaeng have been forgotten, a few are remembered for an outstanding attribute, such as talent or loyalty. The most famous of these is the 16th-century kisaeng Hwang Jin-i.

ocial position

Throughout the Goryeo and Joseon periods, kisaeng held the status of "cheonmin", the lowest rank of society. They shared this status with other entertainers, as well as butchers and slaves. Status was hereditary, so the children of a kisaeng were also of "cheonmin" status, and the daughters automatically became kisaeng as well.ref|cheonmin1 Beginning in the Goryeo period, the governing offices in each district kept a registry of kisaeng, to ensure thorough oversight.ref|cheonmin2 The same practice was followed for conscripted slaves. Kisaeng could only be released from their position if a hefty price was paid to the government; this could usually only be done by a wealthy patron, typically a high government official.ref|cheonmin3

Many kisaeng were skilled in poetry, and numerous "sijo" composed by kisaeng have survived. These often reflect themes of heartache and parting, similar to poems composed by scholars in exile.ref|sijo1 In addition, some of the most famous kisaeng poems were composed to persuade prominent scholars to spend the night.ref|sijo2 Indeed, the sijo style came to be associated with kisaeng women, while women of yangban status focused on the gasa form.ref|sijo3

Kisaeng attached to a local government office were known as "gwan-gi", and their status was carefully differentiated from that of the common slaves also attached to the office. They were separately entered on the census rolls. The kisaeng were regarded as of significantly higher status than the slaves, although technically they were all of "cheonmin" rank.ref|gwangi1

In Korea's structured, hierarchical society, gisaeng were technically slaves. For this reason, they were sometimes spoken of as "possessing the body of the lower class but the mind of the aristocrat." [ [http://www.seoulselection.com/streetwise_read.html?cid=3634 Gisaeng] ]

Career

The career of most kisaeng was very short, generally peaking at age 16 or 17, and over by age 22.ref|career1 Only a few kisaeng were able to maintain their business for very long beyond this time. It may be for this reason that the kisaeng training institutes accepted entrants as young as eight.ref|career2 All kisaeng, even those who did not work as entertainers, were obliged by law to retire at age 50. The best prospect most kisaeng had for long-term support was through becoming the concubine of a patron. However, even this was not an option unless their patron first purchased them from the state, which few men of the Joseon period could afford. Thus, most former kisaeng went on to work in or manage a local tavern.ref|career3

In the later period of Joseon, a three-tiered system developed.ref|tier1 The highest tier was occupied by "haengsu" (행수,行首) who sang and danced at upper-class feasts. "Haengsu" kisaeng were not permitted to entertain after they turned thirty.ref|maxage1 However, they could continue working in other duties, such as dressmaking and medicine, until the age of fifty.ref|maxage2 They received guests only by choice. Most of the kisaeng of the court were of the "haengsu" tier, also called "seonsang" (선상).ref|court1 The "haengsu" kisaeng of each district also took charge of discipline and training new kisaeng.

Kisaeng of the lowest tier were called "samsu" (삼수, 三首). The "samsu" were forbidden to perform the songs and dances of the "haengsu".ref|later2 The tiered system, like other aspects of Joseon class division, broke down in the late nineteenth century.ref|later3

In the course of their careers, some kisaeng were able to amass considerable personal wealth. However, these were the exception. Kisaeng were required to meet their expenses, including food, clothes, and makeup, out of their own personal funds.ref|money1

Becoming a kisaeng

Women entered the kisaeng class through various paths. Some were the daughters of kisaeng, who inherited their mother's status. Others were sold into the "gijeok" by families who could not afford to support them.ref|become1 Most such families were of "cheonmin" rank, but sometimes poor families of higher status sold their children in this fashion. On occasion, even women from the yangban aristocracy were made kisaeng, usually because they had violated the strict sexual mores of the Joseon period.ref|become2

As kisaeng were skilled workers from the beginning, the government took an early interest in ensuring correct education. This first emerged with the establishment of "gyobang", training institutes for palace kisaeng during the Goryeo period. During the Joseon period, this became further codified. Instruction focused on music and dance.

In the three-tiered system of later Joseon, more specialized training schools were established for kisaeng of the first tier. The course of study lasted three years and covered poetry, dance, music, and art.ref|school1 The most advanced such school was located in Pyongyang. This system continued well into the Japanese colonial period, during which time the schools training kisaeng were known as "gwonbeon" (권번).

Daily life

As slaves of the government, the lives of kisaeng were closely regulated. They were overseen by the officer in charge of kisaeng, known as the "hojang".ref|reg1 The "hojang" was also in charge of maintaining the kisaeng register, and ensuring that none of the district's kisaeng had fled. Kisaeng were required to answer the requests of patrons, unless they had previously notified the "hojang".ref|reg2 The kisaeng of the district were expected to appear for inspection twice a month and also when a new official arrived in the area.ref|reg3 In addition, they were required to report for continuing education, usually focused on music and dance. The frequency and content of these trainings varied from region to region.ref|reg4

However, the detailed affairs of the kisaeng were not directly overseen by the state. Order was kept within each "gyobang", which might include some tens of kisaeng, by the "haengsu" kisaeng, those of the highest tier.ref|haengsu1 When problems arose between a kisaeng and a client, or when charges of criminal conduct were made against a kisaeng, the "haengsu" kisaeng usually took the leading role in resolving the situation.ref|haengsu2

In addition, most kisaeng had a "gibu", or "kisaeng husband," who provided protection and economic support, such as buying them pretty things or granting them social status in return for entertainment.ref|gibu1 Most "gibu" were former soldiers, government enforcers, or servants of the royal household.ref|gibu2 At times, there was friction between would-be customers and possessive "gibu", although the "gibu" was not the kisaeng's husband and had no legal claim to her.ref|gibu3 The role of the "gibu" changed over time; at first, many kisaeng in government service had no such patron.ref|gibu4 However, by the late Joseon dynasty, the "gibu" system was more or less universal.ref|gibu5

Joseon Dynasty kisaeng houses were typically located near the center of a town, often close to the marketplace .ref|where1 They were laid out to create a welcoming effect; in many cases, a location was chosen with a fine view,ref|where2 and the area around the house was carefully landscaped with an ornamental pool and plantings.ref|where3

Politics and diplomacy

Kisaeng played a number of important political roles, as servants of the state and in their own right. They were employed to entertain visiting dignitaries from China and Japan, and to accompany them if they travelled through the country.

Thanks to their frequenting the taverns and guest-houses of the town, kisaeng were often among of the most knowledgeable on local affairs. For this reason, they were at times a key source of intelligence. It was through information supplied by kisaeng that the rebel army of Hong Gyeong-rae was able to easily take the fortress of Jeongju in the early 19th century.

When cities fell, as many of Korea's cities did during the Seven Year War in the late 16th century, kisaeng were often made to entertain the generals of the victorious army. Some of Korea's most famous kisaeng, including Non Gae of Jinju, are remembered today for their bravery in killing or attempting to kill leaders of the Japanese army.

Some kisaeng were also active in the Korean independence movements of the early 20th century. In this they resembled other women of Joseon, who often took a leading role in the independence struggle. Aengmu, a kisaeng of Daegu, was a major donor to the National Debt Repayment Movement in the early 20th century.ref|indep1 Some fifty kisaeng of Jinju took part in a demonstration as part of the March First Movement in 1919.ref|indep2

Regional differences

Kisaeng seem to have been relatively few in number, at the most a few thousand. They were spread throughout the country, with a few hundred in the larger centers and smaller numbers in the hyeon villages.ref|pop1 They were also found in the "stations" and inns which provided food and shelter to travellers along the country's arterial roads, such as the Great Yeongnam Road.

The number and characteristics of the kisaeng varied greatly from region to region. During the Joseon period, the city with the most kisaeng by far was Seoul (then called Hanseong), with perhaps 1,000.ref|seoul1 Many of these worked for the court, and helped to fill the vast number of trained entertainers needed for grand festivals.ref|seoul2 Beautiful or talented kisaeng were often taken from the provinces to Seoul.ref|seoul3 The required training for kisaeng in Seoul was regular and very strict, with inattentive kisaeng sent home.ref|seoul4

There were also large numbers of kisaeng in the old capitals of Gaeseong and Pyeongyang. The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were noted for their high level of skill and beauty.ref|pyeongyang1 The kisaeng school of Pyeongyang was one of the country's most advanced, and continued operating until late in the Japanese occupation.ref|pyeongyang2 The kisaeng of Pyeongyang were also known for their ability to recite the "gwan san yung ma", a song by the 18th-century composer Sin Gwang-su.ref|pyeongyang3

Other large concentrations existed around army camps, particularly along the northern border. For instance, in the time of King Sejong in the 15th century, there were some 60 kisaeng attached to the army base at Yeongbyeon.ref|north1 In these areas, kisaeng essentially filled the role of wives for the army, and their role was commensurately more focused on domestic tasks than on entertainment.

The kisaeng of other regions also maintained distinctive local identities. The kisaeng of Jinju were particularly adept at the Geommu, a traditional sword dance.ref|jinju1 Those of Jeju were known for their equestrian prowess.ref|jeju1 In many cases, the noted skills of a region's kisaeng corresponded with some other local claim to fame. The kisaeng of the Gwandong region on the east coast, home to many famous sights including Geumgangsan, memorized the "gwan dong byeol gok", a poem recounting their region's scenery.ref|gwandong1 Those of the Honam region in the southwest were trained in "pansori",ref|honam1 while those of the "seonbi" city Andong could recite the "Greater Learning" by heart.ref|andong1

History

An overwhelming silence hangs over the official histories of Korea when it comes to the kisaeng.ref|silence1 They enter only occasionally into official records such as the "Goryeosa" or "Joseon Wangjo Sillok". Yet references to kisaeng are quite widespread in the "anecdotal histories" of later Joseon, and Silhak thinkers such as Yi Ik and Dasan gave some thought to their role and station in society. Even today, many formal histories of Korea pay little or no heed to the story of the kisaeng. For example, Ki-baek Lee's "New History of Korea" does not contain a single reference to the kisaeng.

Origins

There are various theories concerning the origin of the kisaeng. The first such theory was formulated by the scholar Dasan, and theories have multiplied as the kisaeng themselves have receded further into the past.

One theory actually places their origins in the Silla dynasty, among the "wonhwa", female predecessors of the hwarang.ref|silla1 However, there is little to suggest a concrete link between Silla's "wonhwa" and the later kisaeng. Also, the wonhwa seem to have been chosen from among the aristocracy, whereas kisaeng were always members of the lower classes.ref|silla2 For these reasons, few contemporary scholars support this theory.

Many others trace their origins to the early years of Goryeo, when many people were displaced following the end of the Later Three Kingdoms period in 936.ref|goryeo1 At this time, a large number of Baekje people wandered the country. It is not clear whether this nomadic lifestyle was already established, or a consequence of the recent turmoil. In fact, a connection between these wanderers and the nomadic tribes of Manchuria has been conjectured. The first king of Goryeo, Taejo, considered these wanderers to be a threat to the stability of the state. He ordered that they be made into slaves of the government. Although no certain records exist, it is likely that the first kisaeng were drawn from these former wanderers.

Goryeo

Regardless of their origins, kisaeng first emerged as a class and rose to prominence during the Goryeo Dynasty, 935-1394. They are first mentioned in the early 11th century.ref|first1 At this time, they were primarily engaged in skilled trades such as needlework, music, and medicine. The female entertainers of the court during this period filled a role similar to that later filled by almost all kisaeng. ref|similar1

Due to the growth of the kisaeng class, during the reign of Myeongjong the state began to keep records (called "gijeok") of the kisaeng living in each jurisdiction. Around this time, the state also made its first efforts to set up educational institutions to train kisaeng entertainers. These academies were known as "gyobang", and first appear in history with their abolition by King Hyeonjong in 1010. However, they were re-established in the reign of Chungnyeol. The "gyobang" provided training in the "dangak" and "sogak" musical styles.ref|gogyo1

The women trained in the "gyobang" were exclusively court entertainers. Their role in the affairs of the court became increasingly important as the dynasty progressed. They entertained both the king and visiting dignitaries, a role which continued into the Joseon period. In addition, beginning in the reign of Munjong, they performed at official ceremonies of the state.ref|munjong1

Just as the origin of the kisaeng is unclear, so is their precise relation to other strata of society. The female entertainers who appear in records are exclusively kisaeng of the court, and are recorded as slaves of the government.ref|other1

Joseon

Goryeo was succeeded by the Joseon Dynasty, 1394-1910. During the Joseon dynasty, the kisaeng system continued to flourish and develop, despite the government's deeply ambivalent attitude toward it.

Joseon was founded on Neo-Confucian ideals, and the Neo-Confucian scholars of the time took a very dim view of professional women and of the kisaeng class in particular. There were many calls for the abolition of the kisaeng, or for their exclusion from court, but these were not successful -- perhaps because of the influence of the women themselves, or perhaps because of fear that officials would take to stealing the wives of other men.ref|reasons1 One such proposal was made during the reign of Sejong, but when an advisor of the court suggested that the abolition of the class would lead to government officials committing grave crimes, the king chose to preserve the kisaeng.ref|reasons2

During the brief and violent reign of Yeonsan-gun, 1494-1506, kisaeng became symbolic of royal excess. Yeonsan-gun treated women as primarily objects of pleasure, and made even the medicinal kisaeng ("yakbang gisaeng") into entertainers.ref|yeonsan1 Yeonsan-gun brought 1,000 women and girls from the provinces to serve as palace kisaeng; many of them were paid from the public treasury.ref|yeonsan2 He may have been the first to institute a formal hierarchy among them, dividing the kisaeng of the palace into "Heaven," those with whom he slept, and "Earth," those who served other functions.ref|yeonsan3

In 1650, all kisaeng were made slaves of the government.ref|later1 The kisaeng attached to a government office were known as "gwan-gi", or "kisaeng of the office." Their role did not, by law, include sexual service to the officeholder; in fact, government officials could be punished severely for consorting with a kisaeng. However, in practice kisaeng were often forced to serve the officeholder.ref|gwan1 A distinction was sometimes made between those "gwan-gi" who were obliged to sleep with the officeholder, and those who were not.ref|gwan2 This distinction was featured in the popular lay "Chunhyangga".ref|gwan3

The Gabo Reform of 1895 officially abolished the class system of Joseon, and slavery as well. From that year forward, all kisaeng became nominally free. In practice, many kisaeng, like many other slaves, continued in servitude for many years. In addition, many of those who were freed had no alternative career; they continued as entertainers, now without the protections afforded by kisaeng status. During the subsequent decade, many of these kisaeng went to Japan to work.

Modern kisaeng

Very few traditional kisaeng houses continue to operate in South Korea, and many of the traditions and dances have been lost forever. Some South Korean business circles escort visiting foreign businesspeople to a kisaeng house, but the place is mostly a modern interpretation or a shadow of what the kisaeng house was in the past.

Today the kisaeng's evolution and impact on Korean society are receiving new attention as Koreans devote increasing efforts to rediscovering and re-invigorating their cultural and historical heritage. However, this interest is focused almost entirely on the historical kisaeng of the Joseon period, and not on the traces of the kisaeng which endure today.

Literary and artistic depictions

Kisaeng have played important roles in Korean popular literature since the mid-Joseon Dynasty. As popular literature such as novels and pansori emerged, kisaeng often took a leading role. This was in part due to their unique role as women who could move freely in society. Kisaeng appear as heroines in stories such as Chunhyangga, and as important figures in many other Joseon-era narratives.

Kisaeng also began to appear in the vernacular art of later Joseon. They are particularly common in the work of the famed early 19th-century painter Hyewon, whose work focused on both the life of the "cheonmin" and erotic themes.

Kisaeng continue to be central to the understanding and imagining of Joseon Dynasty culture in contemporary South and North Korea. For example, the female lead in the film "Chwihwaseon" was a kisaeng, the companion of painter Owon. Fresh treatments of popular kisaeng stories, including the fictional Chunhyang and the historical Hwang Jin-Yi, continue to emerge in popular novels and cinema.

Famous kisaeng

Notable kisaeng include:
*Yi Mae-chang, poet of Buan
*Hong Rang
*Seolmae, noted wit.
*Hwang Jin-i, musician and intellectual of Gaeseong.
*Non Gae, remembered for killing a Japanese general during the battle of Jinju.
*Gyewolhyang, who attempted to have the Japanese general Konishi Yukinaga killed in Pyeongyang.
*Manhyang of Hamheung
*Yuji of Hwangju
*Kim Ja-ya, the last classically-trained kisaeng in South Korea.

Notes

# Specifically, the first syllable means "entertainer" and the second means "life" or sometimes "person." See Wiktionary entries for [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/妓 妓] ("gi") and [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/生 生] ("saeng"). The term "ginyeo" (기녀/妓女) is likewise composed of the Sino-Korean elements "gi" for entertainer and "nyeo" for woman.
# Hwang (1997), Ahn (2000b).
# Lee (2002), p. 90.
# Lee (2002), pp. 89-90; Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
# McCann (1974), p. 42.
# These include Hwang Jin-i's "I will break the back of this long winter night" and Han-u's "You will freeze to death." See McCann (1974), Kim (1976).
# Kim (1963), p. 34.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 83.
# Hwang (1997), p. 451.
# Song (1999), p. 35.
# Lee (2002), p. 90; Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
# Hwang (1997), p. 452.
# Lee (2002), p. 89; Hwang (1997), p. 452.
# Lee (2002), p. 89.
# Lee (2002), p. 89.
# Kim (1976), p. 140.
# So claimed by Kim (1976, p. 140); but Song (1999, p. 35) seems to state that the system continued into the early 20th century.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 86.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 82.
# Song (1999, p. 35).
# Ahn (2000b), p. 98.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 98.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 98.
# Ahn (2000b), pp. 99-100.
# Ahn (2000b), pp. 98-99.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 99.
# Ahn (2000b), pp. 91-92.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 92-93.
# Kim (1976), p. 140.
# Kim (1976), p. 139.
# Kim (1976), pp. 139-140; Ahn (2000b), pp. 91-92.
# Ahn (2000b), pp. 89-90.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 94.
# Ahn (2000b), pp. 89-90.
# Daegu Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (1999), p. 219.
# cite web|url=http://kdo.gnnews.co.kr/technote/read.cgi?board=yuljun&y_number=3&nnew=2|title=진주기생들의 만세의거|work=경남문화사랑방|accessdate=2006-02-02
# Hwang (1997), p. 450; Ahn (2000b) notes that some estimates place the total as high as 20,000, but ultimately concurs with Hwang that the total was probably less than 10,000.
# So estimated by Hwang (1997), also Ahn (2000b, p. 101).
# This practice was at its height under the reign of Yeonsan-gun, but continued in other periods.
#
# Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
# Kim (1976), p. 142.
# Song (1999), p. 35.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 102.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 100; Kim (1976), p. 144.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 100; Kim (1976), p. 144.
# Ahn (2000b), p. 100.
# Kim (1976), p. 144.
# Remarked upon by Ahn (2000b), p. 79.
# Specifically during the reigns of Hyeonjong and Munjong (Hwang 1997, p. 450).
# This was asserted by Yi Neung-hwa, author of the first history of the kisaeng (Hwang 1997, p. 449).
# Hwang 1997, loc. cit.
# The Silhak scholar Dasan traced the origin of the class to Myeongjong's creation of the "gijeok", but most contemporary scholars believe that the class had already emerged earlier in the dynasty (Hwang 1997, p. 450).
# Kim (1976), p. 54.
# Song (1999), p. 35.
# Kim (1976), pp. 54-55.
# Kim (1976), p. 55.
# Kim (1976), p. 139.
# Hwang (1997), p. 450. The advisor was Heo Jong.
# Kim (1976), p. 138.
# Kim (1976), p. 139.
# Hwang (1997), p. 451.
# Breen (2004), p. 88.
# So asserted by Ahn (2000a), p. 94.
# Hwang (1997), p. 452. According to Hwang, he terms used were 겉수청, or "surface government servants," and 살수청, or "flesh government servants."
# Hwang (1997). However, according to Ahn (2000a, p. 298), Chunhyang could refuse the magistrate's advances because her body-price had already been paid and her name had been removed from the "gijeok", meaning she was no longer a kisaeng.

References

*cite book|title=조선시대 생활사 (Joseon Sidae Saenghwalsa) (Lifestyle history of the Joseon period)|author=Ahn, Gil-jeong (안길정)|id=ISBN 89-7196-701-3|location=Seoul|publisher=Sakyejul|year=2000 (In two volumes).

*cite book|title=The Koreans (rev. ed.)|first=Michael|last=Breen|id=ISBN 0-312-32609-2|location=New York|publisher=Thomas Dunne Books|year=2004

*cite book|title=역사 속의 대구, 대구 사람들 (Yeoksa sogui Daegu, Daegu saramdeul) (Daegu and its people in history)|author=Daegu-Gyeongbuk Historical Research Society (대구-경북 역사연구회)|id=ISBN 89-89524-09-1|location=Seoul|publisher=Jungsim|year=1999

*cite book|title=한국사를 바꾼 여인들 (Hanguksareul bakkun yeonindeul) (The women who changed Korean history)|author=Hwang, Won-gap (황원갑)|id=ISBN 89-5639-014-2|location=Seoul|publisher=책이있는마을|year=1997

*cite book|title=기생: 말하는 꽃 (Gisaeng: Malhaneun kkot) (Kisaeng: The speaking flowers)|first=Minato|last=Kawamura|id=ISBN 89-7381-474-5|location=Seoul|publisher=Sodam|year=2001 (Tr. from Japanese original)

*Kim, Dong-uk. (1963). Women's literary achievements (Yi Dynasty). "Korea Journal 3"(11), 33-36. [http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=3&BOOKNUM=11&PAPERNUM=24&TOTALSEARCH=&AUTHORENAME=&PAPERTITLE=women&KEYWORD=&PAPERTYPE=0&SUBJECT=0&STARTYEAR=1961&ENDYEAR=2003&LISTOPTION=1&KEYPAGE=10&PAGE=4]

*cite book|title= An introduction to classical Korean literature from hyangga to p'ansori|first=Kichung|last=Kim|id=|year=1996|location=Armonk|publisher=M.E. Sharpe

*cite book|title=Women of Korea: A history from ancient times to 1945|first=Yung Chung|last=Kim|id=ISBN 89-7300-116-7|year=1976|location=Seoul|publisher=Ewha Womans University Press

*cite book|title=Ideology, culture and "han": Traditional and early modern Korean women's literature|first=Younghee|last=Lee|id=ISBN 89-88095-43-X|year=2002|location=Seoul|publisher=Jimoondang

*McCann, David. (1977). Traditional world of kisaeng. "Korea Journal 14"(2), 40-43. [http://www.ekoreajournal.net/archive/detail.jsp?VOLUMENO=14&BOOKNUM=2&PAPERNUM=5&TOTALSEARCH=&AUTHORENAME=&PAPERTITLE=kisaeng&KEYWORD=&PAPERTYPE=0&SUBJECT=0&STARTYEAR=1961&ENDYEAR=2003&LISTOPTION=1&KEYPAGE=10&PAGE=1]
*cite book|title=Korean music: Historical and other aspects|first=Bang-song|last=Song|id=ISBN 89-88095-13-8|location=Seoul|publisher=Jimoondang| year=1999

ee also

*Korean culture
*History of Korea
*List of Korea-related topics
*Geisha-Japanese female entertainers, similar to Kisaeng.

External links

* [http://english.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/200501/200501130018.html Chosun Ilbo article on the vestiges of the kisaeng]
* http://www.seoulselection.com/asiana_newsletter_read.html?nid=159
* http://www.boaeditions.org/books/songsof.html
* [http://www.chosun.com/w21data/html/news/199909/199909090320.html Korean-language profile of the Pyeongyang Kisaeng School]