Phallus indusiatus

Phallus indusiatus Scientific classification Kingdom: Fungi Division: Basidiomycota Subdivision: Agaricomycotina Class: Agaricomycetes Order: Phallales Family: Phallaceae Genus: Phallus Species: P. indusiatus Binomial name Phallus indusiatus Vent. Synonyms[1] 1809 Dictyophora indusiata (Vent.) Desv. 1817 Hymenophallus indusiatus (Vent.) Nees Phallus indusiatus Mycological characteristics smooth hymenium no distinct cap hymenium attachment is irregular or not applicable stipe has a volva spore print is olive ecology is saprotrophic edibility: edible

Phallus indusiatus, commonly called in English the bamboo fungus, bamboo pith, long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn or veiled lady, is a stinkhorn fungus in the Phallaceae family. It has a cosmopolitan distribution in tropical areas, and has been collected in Asia, the Americas, and Africa. The fungus is characterised by a conical to bell-shaped cap on a stipe and a lacy "skirt" that hangs from beneath the cap. Mature fruit bodies are up to 30 cm (12 in) tall with a cap that is 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) long. The cap is covered with a greenish spore-containing slime, which attract flies and other insects that eat the spores and disperse them. It is an edible mushroom used as an ingredient in Chinese haute cuisine; the mushroom is grown commercially and commonly sold in Asian markets. Nutritional analysis has shown that the mushroom is rich in protein, carbohydrates and dietary fiber. The mushroom also contains various bioactive compounds, and has antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.

Taxonomy and naming

Phallus indusiatus was initially described by French naturalist Étienne Pierre Ventenat in 1798,^[2] and sanctioned under that name by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1801.^[3] One author anonymously gave his impressions of Ventenat's discovery in an 1800 publication:

This beautiful species, which is sufficiently characterised to distinguish it from every other individual of the class, is copiously produced in Dutch Guiana, about 300 paces from the sea, and nearly as far from the left bank of the river of Surinam. It was communicated to me by the elder Vaillant, who discovered it in 1755 on some raised ground which was never overflowed by the highest tides, and is formed of a very fine white sand, covered with a thin stratum of earth. The prodigious quantity of individuals of this species which grow at the same time, the very different periods of their expansion, the brilliancy and the varied shades of their colours, present a prospect truly picturesque.^[4]

The fungus was later placed in a new genus, Dictyophora, in 1809 by Desvaux;^[5] it was then known for many years as Dictyophora indusiata.^[6] Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck placed the species in Hymenophallus in 1817, as H. indusiatus.^[7] However, when both Dictyophora and Hymenophallus were variously rendered synonyms of Phallus, the species was reclassified under its original name.^[1][6]

Its specific epithet is the Latin adjective indūsǐātus "wearing an undergarment".^[8] The former generic name Dictyophora is derived from the Ancient Greek words diktu- "net", and pherein "to bear", hence "bearing a net".^[9] Phallus indusiatus has many common names based on its appearance, including long net stinkhorn, crinoline stinkhorn, bamboo mushroom,^[10] basket stinkhorn,^[11] bridal veil fungus, or veiled lady.^[12] Its Japanese name is Kinugasatake.^[13] Alternate common names that refer to its typical growth habitat include "bamboo fungus" or "bamboo pith", and its Chinese name zhu sheng (竹笙, pinyin: zhúshēng) or zhu sun (竹荪; pinyin: zhúsūn).

Description

Found in Alta Floresta, Brazil. The lacy "skirt" under the cap is the indusium.

Immature fruit bodies of P. indusiatus are egg-shaped to roughly spherical, whitish to pale brown, and up to 5 cm (2.0 in) in diameter.^[14] The mature mushroom is up to 30 cm (12 in) tall, and is girded with a net-like structure called the indusium, or "skirt", which hangs down around 15 cm (6 in) from the conical cap. The netlike openings of the indusium may be polyhedral or round in shape.^[15] Well-developed specimens have the indusium reaching the volva and flaring out somewhat before collapsing.^[14] The bell-shaped cap is 2–4 cm (0.8–1.6 in) high and covered with a greenish-brown slime termed the gleba. The stalk is 7–25 cm (3–10 in) high and 0.2–0.5 cm in diameter.^[15] The method of reproduction for stinkhorns, including P. indusiatus, is different from many mushrooms, which use the air to spread their spores. Stinkhorns instead produce a sticky spore mass on their tip which has a sharp, sickly-sweet odor of carrion to attract bees, and flies.^[16] The mature fruiting bodies can be smelled from a considerable distance in the woods, and at close quarters most people find the cloying stink extremely repulsive. The flies land in the gleba and consume the slime, depositing it as excrement elsewhere.^[17] In older fungi the slime is eventually removed, leaving the pale off-white, bare pitted and ridged surface exposed.^[15] The fruit bodies develop during the night, and are short-lived, typically lasting 1–3 days.^[17]

The spores are thin-walled, smooth, ellipsoid, straight to slightly curved in side view, hyaline (translucent), and measure 2–3 by 1–1.5 μm.^[18]

The Argentinian mycologist Jorge Eduardo Wright reported finding specimens in Argentina and Bolivia, otherwise identical to the normal variant, with a pink indusium. He named these Dictyophora indusiata var. rosea.^[19]

Similar species

The lookalike mushroom Phallus merulinus has a shorter indusium and smoother cap than P. indusiatus.

Phallus multicolor is similar in overall appearance, but it has a more brightly colored cap, stem and indusiatum, and it is usually smaller. It is found in Australia, Guam, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Papua New Guinea, Zaire, and Tobago ^[20] as well as Hawaii. The cap of the Indo-Pacific species Phallus merulinus appears smooth when covered with gleba, and is pale and wrinkled once the gleba has worn off. In contrast, the cap surface of P. indusiatus tends to have conspicuous reticulations that are not obscured even when covered with gleba. Also, the indusium of P. merulinus is more delicate and shorter than that of P. indusiatus, and thus less likely to collapse under its own weight.^[21] P. cinnabarinus, a Taiwanese species found under the bamboo Dendrocalamus latiflorus, grows to 13 cm (5.1 in) tall, and has a more offensive odor than P. indusiatus. It attracts flies from the genus Lucida, rather than the house flies of the genus Musca that prefer P. indusiatus.^[22] P. echinovolvatus, described from China in 1988, is closely related to P. indusiatus, but can be distinguished by its volva which has an echinulate (spiky) surface, and its higher preferred growth temperature of 30 to 35 °C (86 to 95 °F).^[23]

Distribution and habitat

The range of Phallus indusiatus is tropical, including Africa (Congo,^[14] Nigeria,^[24] Uganda,^[25] and Zaire^[26]) South America (Brazil^[18] Guyana,^[27] and Venezuela^[28]), Central America (Costa Rica),^[29] and Tobago.^[30] In North America, its range is restricted to Mexico.^[31] Asian localities include Malaysia,^[32] southern China, Japan,^[17] and Taiwan.^[33] It has also been collected in Australia.^[34] Like all Phallus species, the fungus is saprobic—deriving nutrients from breaking down wood and plant organic matter. It tends to grow in disturbed ground and among wood chips. In Asia, it grows among bamboo forests, and is typically found after heavy rains.^[17][35]

Uses

Edibility

Chinese Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) enjoyed mushroom dishes prepared with P. indusiata.

Previously only collected in the wild, where it is uncommon, P. indusiatus was rare and difficult to procure. The mushroom's rarity meant that it was usually reserved for special occasions. In the time of China's Qing Dynasty, the species was collected in Yunnan Province and sent to the Imperial Palaces to satisfy the appetite of Empress Dowager Cixi, who particularly enjoyed meals with edible fungi.^[36] It was one of the eight featured ingredients of the "Bird's Nest Eight Immortals Soup" served at a banquet to celebrate her 60th birthday.^[37] Another notable use was a banquet held for Henry Kissinger on his visit to China to reestablish diplomatic relations in the early 1970s.^[38] One source writes of the mushroom: "It has a fine and tender texture, fragrance and is attractive, beautiful in shape, fresh and crispy in taste."^[39] The dried fungus, commonly sold in Asian markets, is prepared by rehydrating and soaking or simmering in water until tender.^[40]

Phallus indusiatus has been cultivated on a commercial scale in China since 1979.^[38] In the Fujian Province of China—known for a thriving mushroom industry that cultivates 45 species of edible fungi—P. indusiatus is produced in the counties of Fuan, Jianou, and Ningde.^[41] Advances in cultivation have made the fungus cheaper and more available; in 1998, about 1,100 metric tons (1,100 long tons; 1,200 short tons) were produced in China.^[10] The Hong Kong price for a kilogram of dried mushrooms reached around US $770 in 1982, but had dropped to US $100–200 by 1988. Further advances led to it dropping further to US $10–20.^[38] The fungus is grown on agricultural wastes—bamboo-trash sawdust covered with a thin layer of non-sterilized soil. The optimal temperature for the growth of mushroom spawn and fruit bodies is about 24 °C (75 °F), with a relative humidity of 90–95%.^[42] Other substrates which can be used for the cultivation of the fungus include bamboo leaves and small stems, soybean pods or stems, corn stems, and willow leaves.^[43]

Nutritional composition Phallus indusiatus, egg stage (dry weight)^[24]

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	?
Fat	1.66
Protein	33.6
Calcium	61.0 mg (6%)
Iron	36.6 mg (282%)
Magnesium	156 mg (44%)
Manganese	5.1 mg (243%)
Potassium	153. mg (3%)
Sodium	5.1 mg (0%)
Zinc	133.0 mg (1400%)
Percentages are relative to US recommendations for adults.

Jonathan and colleagues have performed a nutritional analysis of P. indusiatus, based on specimens collected from Nigeria. They determined that the egg stage of the fungus contains (per 100 g of fungus, dry weight) 33.6 g of crude protein, 1.66 g of fat, and 3.98 g of carbohydrates. The egg stage was also measured to comprise 20.9 g crude fiber, and 88.76% moisture. The high levels of protein and fiber (which are comparable to values found in meat and vegetables, respectively) suggest that the egg form of P. indusiatus is a good food source. The concentration of several mineral elements, including potassium, sodium, and iron was also favorable compared to fruits and vegetables, although the authors mention that mineral composition in the fungus is dependent on their corresponding concentrations in the soil in which they grow.^[24]

Bioactive compounds

The fruit bodies of the fungus contain biologically active polysaccharides. A β-D-glucan called T-5-N, prepared from alkaline extracts,^[44] has been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties.^[45] The chemical structure of the polysaccharide was found to have a linear chain backbone made largely of α-1→3 linked D-mannopyranosyl residues, with traces of 1→6 linked D-mannopyrosyl residues.^[13] The polysaccharide has exhibited tumor-suppressing activity against subcutaneously implanted sarcoma 180 (a transplantable, non-metastasizing connective tissue tumor often used in research) in mice.^[45][46]

Hydroxymethylfurfural

P. indusiatus contains the chemical 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furfural (also known as hydroxymethylfurfural).^[47] This compound inhibits tyrosinase, an enzyme that catalyzes the initial steps of melanogenesis in mammals, and is responsible for the undesirable browning reactions in damaged fruits during post-harvest handling and processing.^[48] For these reasons, researchers are interested in finding effective tyrosinase inhibitors for the medical, cosmetics, and food industries. Hydroxymethylfurfural occurs naturally in several foods, and is not associated with serious health risks.^[47] P. indusiatus also contains a unique ribonuclease (RNase)—an enzyme that cuts RNA into smaller components. The enzyme has several biochemical characteristics that differentiate it from other known mushroom RNases: a unique N-terminal sequence of peptides; an unusual sensitivity to heat, whereby enzyme activity is completely lost after 10 minutes at 100 °C (212 °F); optimal enzyme activity at an acidic pH (4–4.5); and specificity towards RNAs containing sequences with continuous stretches of uracil (polyU) and adenine (polyA).^[49]

Two novel sesquiterpenes have been identified from the fruit bodies of the fungus, named dictyophorine A and B. These compounds are based on the eudesmane skeleton (a common structure found in plant-derived flavors and fragrances), are the first eudesmane derivatives isolated from fungi. The dictyophorines promote the synthesis of nerve growth factor in astroglial cells.^[50] Other similar compounds isolated and identified from the fungus include the quinazoline compounds named dictyoquinazoles A, B and C.^[51] These chemicals—belonging to a class of compounds known to be rare in nature—were shown in laboratory tests to have a protective effect on cultured mouse neurons that had been exposed to neurotoxins.^[52] A total synthesis for the dictyoquinazoles was reported in 2007.^[53]

Extracts of P. indusiatus have been shown to have both antioxidant and antimicrobial properties.^[12][54] Mushroom extracts were tested against a variety of bacteria and fungi pathogenic to humans, and in some cases had antimicrobial activity comparable to the antibiotics ampicillin, tetracycline, and nystatin. The antioxidant effect of the fungus is due to a class of molecules known as polyphenols; this class of compounds, common in some types of legumes and fruits, plays a role in reducing cellular damage resulting from oxidative stress.^[12]

References

1. ^ ^{a b} "Hymenophallus indusiatus (Vent.) Nees 1817". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. http://www.mycobank.org/MycoTaxo.aspx?Link=T&Rec=178314. Retrieved 2010-10-19. 
2. ^ Ventenat ÉP. (1798). "Dissertation sur le genre Phallus" (in French). Mémoires de l'institut National des Sciences et Arts 1: 520. 
3. ^ Persoon CH. (1801) (in Latin). System Mycologicum Fungorum. Göttingen, Germany: Apud H. Dieterich. p. 244. http://books.google.ca/books?id=vugVAAAAYAAJ&dq=Synopsis%20Methodica%20Fungorum%20persoon%20volume%202&pg=PA244#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 2010-10-19. 
4. ^ Anonymous (1800). "XXVII. A dissertation on the genus Phallus, by M. Ventenat". The Critical Review, or, Annals of Literature (London) 13: 502. http://books.google.com/books?id=c8YPAAAAQAAJ&dq=Phallus%20indusiatus&pg=PA501#v=onepage&q=Phallus%20indusiatus&f=false. 
5. ^ Desvaux NA. (1809). "Observations sur quelques genres à établir dans la famille des champignons" (in French). Journal de Botanique (Desvaux) 2: 88–105. ISBN 9781113157959. http://books.google.com/books?id=-d4wGi0nOHIC&lpg=PA89&dq=Phallus%20indusiatus&pg=PA88#v=onepage&q=Phallus%20indusiatus&f=false. 
6. ^ ^{a b} Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA. (2008). Dictionary of the Fungi (10th ed.). Wallingford, United Kingdom: CAB International. p. 206. ISBN 9780851998268. 
7. ^ Nees von Esenbeck CDG. (1817) (in German). System der Pilze und Schwämme. Würzburg, Germany: In der Stahelschen buchhandlung. p. 251. http://books.google.com/?id=bEAAAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22System%20der%20Pilze%20und%20Schw%C3%A4mme%22%20esenbeck&pg=PA251#v=onepage&q&f=false. 
8. ^ Simpson DP. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London, England: Cassell Ltd.. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0. 
9. ^ Liddell HG, Scott R. (1980). A Greek-English Lexicon (Abridged Edition). United Kingdom: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-910207-4. 
10. ^ ^{a b} Hall (2003), p. 19.
11. ^ Arora D. (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: a Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi. Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. p. 770. ISBN 0-89815-169-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=S-RmabYsjI4C&lpg=PA768&dq=Dictyophora%20indusiata&pg=PA770#v=onepage&q=Dictyophora%20indusiata&f=false. 
12. ^ ^{a b c} Oyetayo VO, Dong CH, Yao YJ. (2009). "Antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of aqueous extract from Dictyophora indusiata" (PDF). The Open Mycology Journal 3: 20–26. doi:10.2174/1874437000903010020. http://www.bentham.org/open/tomycj/articles/V003/20TOMYCJ.pdf. 
13. ^ ^{a b} Ukai S, Hara C, Kiho T, Hirose K. (1980). "Polysaccharides in fungi. V. Isolation and characterization of a mannan from aqueous ethanol extract of Dictyophora indusiata Fisch" (PDF). Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 29 (9): 2647–52. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/lognavi?name=nels&lang=en&type=pdf&id=ART0004130421. 
14. ^ ^{a b c} Dissing H, Lange M. (1962). "Gasteromycetes of Congo". Bulletin du Jardin botanique de l'État a Bruxelles 32 (4): 325–416. doi:10.2307/3667249. JSTOR 3667249. 
15. ^ ^{a b c} Chang & Miles, p. 344.
16. ^ Chang & Miles, p. 346.
17. ^ ^{a b c d} Tuno N. (1998). "Spore dispersal of Dictyophora fungi (Phallaceae) by flies". Ecological Research 13 (1): 7–15. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1703.1998.00241.x. 
18. ^ ^{a b} Trierveiler-Pereira L, Gomes-Silva AC, Baseia IG. (2009). "Notes on gasteroid fungi of the Brazilian Amazon rainforest". Mycotaxon 110: 73–80. doi:10.5248/110.73. http://www.mycotaxon.com/vol/abstracts/110/110-73.html. 
19. ^ Wright JE. (1960). "Notas sobre Faloideas sud y Centroamericanas [Notes about South and Central America phalloids]" (in Spanish). Lilloa 30: 339–59. 
20. ^ Burk WR, Smith DR. (1978). "Dictyophora multicolor, new to Guam". Mycologia 70 (6): 1258–59. doi:10.2307/3759327. JSTOR 3759327. 
21. ^ Reid DA. (1977). "Some Gasteromycetes from Trinidad and Tobago". Kew Bulletin 31 (3): 657–90. doi:10.2307/4119418. JSTOR 4119418. 
22. ^ Lee WS. (1957). "Two new phalloids from Taiwan". Mycologia 49 (1): 156–58. doi:10.2307/3755742. JSTOR 3755742. 
23. ^ Zeng DR, Hu ZX, Zhou CL. (1988). "A thermophilic delicious 'veiled lady' – Dictyophora echino-volvata Zang, Zheng & Hu" (in Chinese). Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) (4): 5–6. 
24. ^ ^{a b c} Jonathan SG, Odebode AC, Bawo DDS. (2008). "Studies on collection and proximate compositions of Phallus indusiatus (Vent. Ex. Pers), a Nigerian higher fungus" (PDF). World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 4 (1): 18–22. http://www.idosi.org/wjas/wjas4(1)/4.pdf. 
25. ^ Maitland TD, Wakefield EM. (1917). "Notes on Uganda fungi. I.: The fungus-flora of the forests". Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Gardens, Kew) 1917 (1): 1–19. doi:10.2307/4113409. JSTOR 4113409. 
26. ^ Demoulin V, Dring DM (1975). "Gasteromycetes of Kivu (Zaire), Rwanda and Burundi". Bulletin du Jardin botanique national de Belgique / Bulletin van de National Plantentuin van België 45 (3/4): 339–72. doi:10.2307/3667488. JSTOR 3667488. 
27. ^ Wakefield E. (1934). "Contributions to the flora of tropical America: XXI. Fungi collected in British Guiana, chiefly by the Oxford University Expedition, 1929". Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Gardens, Kew) 1934 (6): 238–58. doi:10.2307/4115405. JSTOR 4115405. 
28. ^ Dennis RWG. (1960). "Fungi venezuelani: III". Kew Bulletin 14 (3): 418–58. doi:10.2307/4114758. JSTOR 4114758. 
29. ^ Saenz JA, Nassar M. (1982). "Mushrooms of Costa Rica – families Phallaceae and Clathraceae" (in Spanish). Revista de Biologia Tropical 30 (1): 41–52. ISSN 0034-7744. 
30. ^ Dennis RWG. (1953). "Some West Indian Gasteromycetes". Kew Bulletin 8 (3): 307–28. doi:10.2307/4115517. JSTOR 4115517. 
31. ^ Guzmán G. (1973). "Some distributional relationships between Mexican and United States mycofloras". Mycologia 65 (6): 1319–30. doi:10.2307/3758146. JSTOR 3758146. PMID 4773309. 
32. ^ Oldridge SG, Pegler DN, Reid DA, Spooner BM. (1986). "A collection of fungi from Pahang and Negeri Sembilan (Malaysia)". Kew Bulletin 41 (4): 855–72. doi:10.2307/4102987. JSTOR 4102987. 
33. ^ Change TT, Chou WN, Wu SH. (2000). "Inventory of macrobasidiomycota and population dynamics of some monitored species at Fushan forest" (in Chinese). Fungal Science 15 (1/2): 15–26. ISSN 1013-2732. 
34. ^ Smith KN. (2005). A Field Guide to the Fungi of Australia. Sydney, Australia: UNSW Press. p. 200. ISBN 0-86840-742-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=ysgx509xB-AC&lpg=PA200&dq=Phallus%20indusiatus&pg=PA200#v=onepage&q=Phallus%20indusiatus&f=false. 
35. ^ Hall, p. 247.
36. ^ Hu 2005, pp. 94–95.
37. ^ Hu 2005, p. 96.
38. ^ ^{a b c} Chang & Miles, p. 343.
39. ^ Hu 2005, p.110.
40. ^ Halpern GM. (2007). Healing Mushrooms. Garden City Park, NY: Square One Publishers. pp. 115–16. ISBN 0-7570-0196-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=FlrpouUh740C&lpg=PA116&dq=Dictyophora%20indusiata&pg=PA115#v=onepage&q=Dictyophora%20indusiata&f=false. 
41. ^ Hu D. (2004) (PDF). Mushroom industries in China "small mushroom & big business" (Report). Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen University and Research Centre, Agricultural Economics Research Institute, LEI BV. http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/d50cde8fcbc78dc42a68700b96b10ee0.pdf. 
42. ^ Yang QY, Jong SC. (1987). "Artificial cultivation of the veiled lady mushroom, Dictyophora indusiata". In Wuest PJ, Royse DJ, Beelman RB. (eds.). Developments in Crop Science: Cultivating Edible Fungi. 10. International Symposium on Scientific and Technical Aspects of Cultivating Edible Fungi, University Park, PA (USA). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.. pp. 437–42. ISBN 0-444-42747-3. 
43. ^ Zhou FL, Qiao CS. (1989). "Initial research on the rapid cultivation of Dictyophora indusiata" (in Chinese). Zhongguo Shiyongjun (Edible Fungi of China) (1): 17–18. 
44. ^ Ukai S, Hara C, Kiho T. (1982). "Polysaccharides in fungi. IX. a β-D-glucan from alkaline extract of Dictyophora indusiata Fisch" (PDF). Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 30 (6): 2147–54. http://www.journalarchive.jst.go.jp/jnlpdf.php?cdjournal=cpb1958&cdvol=30&noissue=6&startpage=2147&lang=en&from=jnltoc. 
45. ^ ^{a b} Hara C, Kiho T, Tanaka T, Ukai S. (1982). "Anti-inflammatory activity and conformational behavior of a branched (1→3)-β-D-glucan from an alkaline extract of Dictyophora indusiata Fisch". Carbohydrate Research 110 (1): 77–87. doi:10.1016/0008-6215(82)85027-1. PMID 7172167. 
46. ^ Ukai S, Kiho T, Hara C, Morita M, Goto A, Imaizumi N, Hasegawa Y. (1983). "Polysaccharides in fungi. XIII. Anti-tumor activity of various polysaccharides isolated from Dictyophora indusiata, Ganoderma japonicum, Cordyceps cicadae, Auricularia auricula-judae and Auricularia species" (PDF). Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin (Tokyo) 31 (2): 741–44. PMID 6883594. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/lognavi?name=nels&lang=en&type=pdf&id=ART0004203268. 
47. ^ ^{a b} Sharma VK, Choi J, Sharma N, Choi M, Seo S-Y. (2004). "In vitro anti-tyrosinase activity of 5-(Hydroxymethyl)-2-furfural isolated from Dictyophora indusiata". Phytotherapy Research 18 (10): 841–44. doi:1E0T.1H00Y2L/p)t-r2.1-F42U8. PMID 15551389. 
48. ^ Chang TS. (2009). "An Updated Review of Tyrosinase Inhibitors". International Journal of Molecular Sciences 10 (6): 2440–75. doi:10.3390/ijms10062440. PMC 2705500. PMID 19582213. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2705500. 
49. ^ Wang H, Ng TB. (2003). "A novel ribonuclease from the veiled lady mushroom Dictyophora indusiata". Biochemistry and Cell Biology 81 (6): 373–66. doi:10.1139/O03-067. PMID 14663503. 
50. ^ Kawagishi H, Ishiyama D, Mori H, Sakamoto H, Ishiguro Y, Furukawa S, Li J. (1997). "Dictyophorines A and B, two stimulators of NGF-synthesis from the mushroom Dictyophora indusiata". Phytochemistry 45 (6): 1203–5. doi:10.1016/S0031-9422(97)00144-1. PMID 9272967. 
51. ^ Lee I-K, Yun B-S, Han G, Cho D-H, Kim Y-H, Yoo I-D. (2002). "Dictyoquinazols A, B, and C, new neuroprotective compounds from the mushroom Dictyophora indusiata". Journal of Natural Products 65 (12): 1769–72. doi:10.1021/np020163w. PMID 12502311. 
52. ^ Liu J-K. (2005). "N-containing compounds of macromycetes" (PDF). Chemical Reviews 107 (7): 2723–44. doi:10.1021/cr0400818. PMID 16011322. http://www.kib.ac.cn/jgsz/kyxt/zwhx/zhzlxz/200909/P020090917651746189987.pdf. 
53. ^ Oh CH, Song CH. (2007). "Total synthesis of neuroprotective dictyoquinazol A, B, and C". Synthetic Communications 37 (19): 3311–17. doi:10.1080/00397910701489537. 
54. ^ Mau J-L, Lin H-C, Song S-F. (2002). "Antioxidant properties of several specialty mushrooms". Food Research International 35 (6): 519–26. doi:10.1016/S0963-9969(01)00150-8. 

Cited literature

• Chang S-T, Miles PG. (2004). "Dictyophora, formerly for the few". Mushrooms:Cultivation, Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Impact (2nd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-1043-1. 
• Hall IR. (2003). Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms of the World. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. ISBN 0-88192-586-1. 
• Hu D. (2004) (PDF). Chinese food culture and mushroom (Report). Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen University and Research Centre, Agricultural Economics Research Institute, LEI BV. http://www.lei.dlo.nl/leichina/files/78ca5deca29c48c75da777243aa01393.pdf. 

External links

• Phallus indusiatus in Index Fungorum.