Zhang Liang (Western Han)

Zhang Liang (張良, d. 189 BC), courtesy name Zifang (子房), formally Marquess Wencheng of Liu (留文成侯), was a distinguished statesman of the early Western Han period. Zhang was the descendant of a noble family of State of Hán during the Warring States Period — his father, grandfather and great-grandfather (a total of five generations) were all royal officials of the state of Hán. He later joined Liu Bang in 208 BC to rebel against the rule of Qin and helped him establish the Han Dynasty, after which he soon retired and became a practitioner of Taoism. Zhang Liang was considered one of the Three Pillars of Liu Bang's victory, along with the Han Xin, the grand-general of Han forces and Xiao He, the first Prime Minister of the Han Dynasty.

"Note: to distinguish between the State of Han (韓, pinyin: Hán) and Han Dynasty (漢, pinyin: Hàn), for the rest of this article, the State of Han (and its princes, with the same family name as the state) would be referred to as Hán, while Han Dynasty and its predecessor state, the Principality of Han, would simply be referred to as Han."

Assassinating Qin Shi Huang

In order to avenge the destruction of Hán, in 230 BC Zhang Liang planned an assassination plot against Qin Shi Huang, and spent his entire family fortune hiring assassins. In 217 BC, the plan was carried out, involving a strongman assassin who ambushed the imperial convoy by throwing a heavy hammer at the Emperor's personal carriage, but it failed when the missile missed and hit the nearby cart instead. The surprised and furious emperor then made orders that the persons responsible be captured, but Zhang eluded the dragnet and went on exile. The attempt was the origin of a famous Chinese four-character idiom 誤中副車 ("mistakenly hit the escort carriage").

Sir Yellow Boulder

It was during this period of fugitive life that Zhang, according to legend, met an old man who taught him military strategy, which he used to aid Liu Bang to victory.

One day when he was walking along a river at Xia Pi, an elderly man suddenly took off his shoe and chucked it down the Pi Bridge, and ordered Zhang to fetch it for him. Although unhappy, Zhang silently obeyed. The old man then asked Zhang to put the shoe on for him, before proceeded to leave without appreciation, leaving the confused and humiliated Zhang behind. However, the old man, impressed by Zhang's humble attitude, soon turned and said, "You kid are educateable (孺子可教)!" and asked Zhang to meet him at the bridge at dawn in five days. However, Zhang Liang arrived late five days later and was scorned by the old man, who asked him to meet again in five days. This time Zhang Liang got up early, but still the old man beat him to the clock. After given one last chance, Zhang got up in midnight and waited at the bridge til dawn, managed to be earlier than the old man. The old man was impressed, and gave him a set of books "The Grand Duke's Art of War" said to be the teachings of the famous Jiang Shang.

When the appreciative Zhang asked his name, the old man said, "Thirteen years later, if you came to see me, I'm the yellow rock at the foot of Gucheng Mountain." Legend says that Zhang did see a yellow boulder at the indicated site thirteen years later, an he took the rock home and built a shrine for it. When he died, he was buried along with the yellow boulder. The old man was often referred in history as "Sir Yellow Rock", and later generations named the book "Sir Yellow Rock's Book".

In "Xian Zhuan Shi Yi" ("Biography of the Immortals"), an ancient book that has a published article, "Zhang Zifang's Story," which is Zhang Liang's story. Allegedly, after reading the book, Zhang Liang became very wise. He became very adept in dealing with and controlling volatile situations. Additionally, Zhang Liang cultivated by adhering to the book's teachings. He attained great powers and energy and could even lighten his body enough to enter other dimensions. He was even able to communicate with several Gods. According to the article in "Xian Zhuan Shi Yi", Zhang Liang was buried on Long Shou Yuan (Dragon King Field) after he died. During the rebellion of the Red Eyebrow Army, Zhang Liang's tomb was robbed. The robber saw only a yellow stone pillow. The pillow changed and flew away like a shooting star. There was nothing in Zhang Liang's tomb. Zhang Liang gave up power, fame, success, and wealth once he had achieved them and started upon the cultivation path. In the end he became an immortal. One can read about Zhang Liang's wonderful and magnificent achievements, including being able to levitate after he cultivated. Zhang Liang made the best of all possible choices!

Meeting Liu Bang and divided loyalties between serving him and reestablishing Hán

Zhang continued planing to reesstablish Hán. After Chen Sheng started a rebellion against Qin Dynasty in 209 BC, Zhang gathered about a hundred men and planned to join Chen's temporary successor as Prince of Chu, Jing Ju (景駒), when he met Liu Bang at Liu (劉, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). He was impressed by Liu Bang, and chose to join him. When Zhang discussed military strategies with Liu, Liu often understood and accepted his suggestions, while those strategies were lost on other generals that Zhang talked with, which further impressed Zhang.

Despite Zhang's good impression of Liu, his priority remained the reestablishment of Hán, and after Xiang Liang overthrew Jing and replaced Jing with a member of the Chu royalty, Mi Xin (羋心) as Prince Huai of Chu in summer 208 BC, Zhang managed to persuade Xiang that it would be advantageous to do the same with Hán. Xiang and Zhang found Hán Cheng (韓成), a descendant of Hán royalty, who previously had the title the Lord of Hengyang, and Xiang created Hán the Prince of Hán. Xiang also named Zhang Hán's prime minister, and Hán, assisted by Zhang, set out to try to recapture former Hán territories, without much success, so they engaged in guerrilla warfare against Qin forces for a while.

In summer 207 BC, after Xiang Liang's death, Liu, then commissioned by Prince Huai of Chu to command an expeditionary force against Qin proper (modern Shaanxi), temporarily joined forces against with Zhang and his prince, Hán Cheng. Together, they recaptured the old Hán capital Yangzhai (陽翟, in modern Xuchang, Henan) for Hán to stabilize his newly reestablished principality. With Hán's blessing, Zhang rejoined Liu as his strategist on the expedition against Qin proper. Zhang would contribute many winning strategies on the way into Qin proper during the campaign of 207 BC. For example, when Liu's forces arrived at the heavily fortified Qin stronghold of Yao Gate (嶢關), close to the Qin capital of Xianyang, Zhang suggested first promising a ceasefire, and then, as the Qin forces relaxed their guard, bypassing Yao Gate and attacking Qin forces from the rear, which led to the total collapse of Qin forces and the surrender of its last king Ziying in the winter of 207 BC.

When Xiang Yu also arrived and nearly destroyed Liu out of jealousy, Zhang was instrumental in preventing total disaster for Liu at the Feast at Hong Gate, by first saving Liu from military annihilation and then from assassination, by obtaining the assistance of Xiang's uncle Xiang Bo (項伯).

Death of Hán Cheng and Zhang's subsequent permanent allegiance to Liu

Xiang, however, denied Liu the Principality of Qin, which Prince Huai of Chu promised to whoever entered Qin first. Instead, Xiang Yu divided the former Qin empire into 19 principalities, giving Liu the then-remote Principality of Han. Zhang's prince, Hán Cheng, was to retain the Principality of Hán under this arrangement. Zhang, as Hán's prime minister, bid goodbye to Liu and returned to the Principality of Hán. As a parting gift, Liu gave him 120 kilograms of gold and two urns of pearls, all of which he gave to Xiang Bo.

Xiang would continue to bear a grudge against Zhang and Prince Hán Cheng, however, for having assisted Liu. Although Xiang's division of the empire involved Hán retaining his principality, Xiang did not actually permit Hán to govern it, but forced him to accompany Xiang back to the capital of Xiang's Principality of Western Chu, Pengcheng (彭城, in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu). Not long after that, Xiang demoted Hán to Marquess of Rang, and, for an unknown reason, had Hán executed. He made one of his associates, Zheng Chang (鄭昌), not related to Hán royalty, the new Prince of Hán. Zhang remained titular prime minister of Hán under this arrangement, but aware of his own precarious position, and cognizant of how Xiang had effectively destroyed his hopes of a restored Principality of Hán, he escaped and joined Liu in the Principality of Han in the winter of 206 BC. Liu made him the Marquess of Chengxin.

Contributions to Liu Bang during Chu Han Contention

During the subsequent four-year war between Liu and Xiang, known as Chu Han Contention, Zhang continued to offer Liu winning strategies. One of the most immediate ones involved a (temporary) restoration of the Principality of Hán. Probably advised by Zhang in this, Liu employed Hán Xin (not to be confused with Liu Bang's general of the exact same name), also a member of Hán royalty the new Prince of Hán and sent him to attack Zheng Chang. Hán easily prevailed, and for the rest of the war old Hán territory was held by Liu Bang.

Other key strategic moves that Liu Bang made at Zhang's suggestion during the war include:
* persuading Ying Bu (英布), the Prince of Jiujiang, to join his side, to Xiang Yu's detriment (winter 205 BC);
* halting the implementation of Li Yiji (酈食其)'s strategy to recreate other former Warring States principalities (spring 204 BC);
* forcing himself to, despite injuries, visit soldier camps to show that, in fact, his injuries were not that severe (winter 204 BC);
* (Along with Chen Ping (陳平)) agreeing to create Han Xin the Prince of Qi, to prevent any possibility of Han declaring independence (spring 203 BC);
* (Along with Chen Ping) deciding to make the final assault against Xiang Yu, despite a negotiated peace treaty, leading to Western Chu's destruction (autumn 203 BC);
* persuading the Prince of Chu and Peng Yue the Prince of Liang, to join the final campaign against Xiang Yu (winter 203 BC) by promising to create Han Xin;
* teaching Liu Bang how to win supporters' hearts. It was Zhang's advice not to take up the palace residence during the Xianyang campaign, and suggested that Liu Bang leave the citizens in peace.

Contributions after the establishment of Han Dynasty

Liu was finally victorious in winter 203 BC, declaring himself emperor (later known as Emperor Gao) in 202 BC, and establishing the Han Dynasty. After the Han Dynasty's establishment, Zhang did not take on formal responsibility, but continued to be a key advisor to Emperor Gao. In the summer of 202 BC, he concurred with Lou Jing (婁敬)'s suggestion for Han to set its capital at Chang'an rather than Luoyang. He also began to follow Taoist disciplines, choosing to disengage himself from most governmental affairs. In the winter of 201 BC, when Emperor Gao created many contributors to his victory marquesses, Zhang was created the Marquess of Liu -- initially, Emperor Gao wanted to give him a larger march, but Zhang chose Liu to commemorate the fact that the two first met there. At Zhang's suggestion, Emperor Gao finished the creation of the marquesses in an expeditious manner, to prevent generals who were not initially given marches from conspiring against him out of resentment and fear.

Zhang had no involvement in the subsequent deaths of Han Xin and Peng Yue. However, in the winter of 196 BC, Ying Bu rebelled out of fear of suffering the same fate as Han and Peng. At Emperor Gao's request, Zhang temporarily came out of retirement to assist the Emperor Gao's son, Crown Prince Ying, in governing his home territories. After Emperor Gao's victory over Ying Bu, during which he suffered an injury that would eventually lead to his death, the emperor wanted to replace Crown Prince Ying with his youngest son, Liu Ruyi, the Prince of Zhao. Zhang argued against this, but was ignored, so he claimed an illness and re-retired. (Eventually, however, other officials would be able to convince Emperor Gao to keep Prince Ying crown prince, and after Emperor Gao's death in summer 195 BC, Prince Ying ascended the throne as Emperor Hui.) Zhang appeared to have no involvement with the administration of Emperor Hui, and he died in the summer of 189 BC.

Impact on Chinese history

Zhang is regarded as one of the two greatest strategists in Chinese history (the other is Jiang Ziya), and the legends regarding how he received his strategies, as well as his later employment of Taoist disciplines, added mysterious and supernatural elements to later views of him. In traditional Chinese historians' view, he is usually applauded for how he managed to disassociate himself with political intrigue after the Han victory that he contributed much to. It should also be noted that Zhang always had the good of the state, rather than a personal agenda, as his highest priority. He was not jealous of Emperor Gao's other strategists, Li Yiji, Chen Ping, and Lou Jing; rather, he evaluated their strategies in an even-handed manner, supported them when their strategies were correct, and was not afraid to oppose them when their strategies were not. In this way, modern managers may also have much to learn from Zhang.

References

* "Records of the Grand Historian", vol. 55.
* "Book of Han", vol. 40.
* "Zizhi Tongjian", vols. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12.