Traditional medicine

Alternative medical systems

Acupuncture · Anthroposophic medicine · Ayurveda · Chiropractic · Herbalism · Homeopathy · Naturopathy · Qigong · Siddha medicine · Traditional medicine (Chinese · Mongolian · Tibetan) · Unani

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Whole medical systems · Mind-body interventions · Biologically based therapies · Manipulative therapy · Energy therapies

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Alternative medicine · Glossary · People

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Traditional Medicine on a market in Antananarivo, Madagascar

Traditional healer stand in an open market in Accra, Ghana

Traditional medicine (also known as indigenous or folk medicine) comprises unscientific knowledge systems that developed over generations within various societies before the era of modern medicine. Practices known as traditional medicines include herbal, Ayurveda, Siddha medicine, Unani, ancient Iranian medicine, Islamic medicine, traditional Chinese medicine, traditional Korean medicine, acupuncture, Muti, Ifá, traditional African medicine, and other pseudomedical knowledge and practices all over the globe.

It may include formalized aspects of folk medicine, i.e. longstanding remedies passed on and practiced by lay people.

Botánicas such as this one in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts cater to the Latino community and sell folk medicine alongside statues of saints, candles decorated with prayers, lucky bamboo, and other items.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines traditional medicine as:

"the health practices, approaches, knowledge and beliefs incorporating plant, animal and mineral-based medicines, spiritual therapies, manual techniques and exercises, applied singularly or in combination to treat, diagnose and prevent illnesses or maintain well-being."^[1]

In some Asian and African countries, up to 80% of the population relies on traditional medicine for their primary health care needs. When adopted outside of its traditional culture, traditional medicine is often called complementary and alternative medicine. Herbal medicines can be very lucrative, generating billions of dollars in sales, but adulteration or counterfeit herbs can also be a health hazard.^[1]

The WHO also notes, though, that "inappropriate use of traditional medicines or practices can have negative or dangerous effects" and that "further research is needed to ascertain the efficacy and safety" of several of the practices and medicinal plants used by traditional medicine systems.^[1] Core disciplines which study traditional medicine include ethnomedicine, ethnobotany, and medical anthropology.

Classical history

In the written record, the study of herbs dates back 5,000 years to the ancient Sumerians, who described well-established medicinal uses for plants. Ancient Egyptian medicine of 1000 BC are known to have used various herbs for medicine. The Old Testament also mentions herb use and cultivation.

Many herbs and minerals used in Ayurveda were described by ancient Indian herbalists such as Charaka and Sushruta during the 1st millennium BC.^[2] The first Chinese herbal book was the Shennong Bencao Jing, compiled during the Han Dynasty but dating back to a much earlier date, which was later augmented as the Yaoxing Lun (Treatise on the Nature of Medicinal Herbs) during the Tang Dynasty. Early recognised Greek compilers of existing and current herbal knowledge include Hippocrates, Aristotle, Theophrastus, Dioscorides and Galen.

Roman writers included Pliny the Elder and Celsus.^[3] Pedanius Dioscorides included the writings of the herbalist Krateuas, physician to Mithridates VI King of Pontus from 120 to 63 BC in his De Materia Medica. De Materia Medica was translated into several languages and Turkish, Arabic and Hebrew names were added to it throughout the centuries.^[4] Latin manuscripts of De Materia Medica were combined with a Latin herbal by Apuleius Platonicus (Herbarium Apuleii Platonici) and were incorporated into the Anglo-Saxon codex Cotton Vitellius C.III.

These early Greek and Roman compilations became the backbone of European medical theory and were translated by the Persian Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, 980–1037), the Persian Rhazes (Rāzi, 865–925) and the Jewish Maimonides.^[3] Translations of Greek medical handbooks and manuscripts into Arabic took place in the eighth and ninth centuries.

Arabic indigenous medicine developed from the conflict between the magic-based medicine of the Bedouins and the Arabic translations of the Hellenic and Ayurvedic medical traditions.^[5] Spanish indigenous medicine was influenced by the Arabs from 711 to 1492.^[6] Islamic physicians and Muslim botanists such as al-Dinawari^[7] and Ibn al-Baitar^[8] significantly expanded on the earlier knowledge of materia medica. The most famous Arabic medical treatise was Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine, which was an early pharmacopoeia and introduced the method of clinical trials.^[9][10][11] The Canon was translated into Latin in the 12th century and remained a medical authority in Europe until the 17th century. The Unani system of traditional medicine is also based on the Canon.

Translations of the early Roman-Greek compilations were made into German by Hieronymus Bock whose herbal published in 1546 was called Kreuter Buch. The book was translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585), and from Dutch into English by Carolus Clusius, (1526–1609), published by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball. This became John Gerard's (1545–1612) Herball or General Hiftorie of Plantes.^[3][4] Each new work was a compilation of existing texts with new additions.

Women's folk knowledge existed in undocumented parallel with these texts.^[3] Forty-four drugs, diluents, flavouring agents and emollients mentioned by Discorides are still listed in the official pharmacopoeias of Europe.^[4] The Puritans took Gerard's work to the United States where it influenced American Indigenous medicine.^[3]

Francisco Hernández, physician to Philip II of Spain spent the years 1571–1577 gathering information in Mexico and then wrote Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus, many versions of which have been published including one by Francisco Ximénez. Both Hernandez and Ximenez fitted Aztec ethnomedicinal information into the European concepts of disease such as "warm", "cold", and "moist", but it is not clear that the Aztec’s used these categories.^[12] Juan de Esteyneffer's Florilegio medicinal de todas las enfermedas compiled European texts and added 35 Mexican plants.

Martín de la Cruz wrote an herbal in Nahuatl which was translated into Latin by Juan Badiano as Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis or Codex Barberini, Latin 241 and given to King Carlos V of Spain in 1552.^[13] It was apparently written in haste^{[citation needed]} and influenced by the European occupation of the previous 30 years. Fray Bernadino de Sahagún's used ethnographic methods to compile his codices that then became the Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva Espana, published in 1793.^[13] Castore Durante published his Herbario Nuovo in 1585 describing medicinal plants from Europe and the East and West Indies. It was translated into German in 1609 and Italian editions were published for the next century.

Knowledge transmission and creation

Indigenous medicine is generally transmitted orally through a community, family and individuals until "collected". Within a given culture, elements of indigenous medicine knowledge may be diffusely known by many, or may be gathered and applied by those in a specific role of healer such as a shaman or midwife.^[14] Three factors legitimize the role of the healer – their own beliefs, the success of their actions and the beliefs of the community. When the claims of indigenous medicine become rejected by a culture, generally three types of adherents still use it – those born and socialized in it who become permanent believers, temporary believers who turn to it in crisis times, and those who only believe in specific aspects, not in all of it.^{[15][verification needed]}

Elements in a specific culture are not necessarily integrated into a coherent system, and may be contradictory. In the Caribbean, indigenous remedies fall into several classes: certain well-known European medicinal herbs introduced by the early Spaniard colonists that are still commonly cultivated; indigenous wild and cultivated plants, the uses of which have been adopted from the Amerindians; and ornamental or other plants of relatively recent introduction for which curative uses have been invented without any historical basis.^{[16][verification needed]}

Rights of ownership may be claimed in indigenous medical knowledge. Use of such knowledge without Prior Informed Consent of or compensation to those claiming such ownership may be termed 'biopiracy'. See Commercialization of indigenous knowledge, also the Convention on Biological Diversity (in particular Article 8j and the Nagoya Protocol).

See also

• African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines
• Health care providers
• Traditional birth attendants

Footnotes

1. ^ ^{a b c} "Fact sheet no. 134: Traditional medicine". World Health Organization. 2008-12-01. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs134/en/index.html. Retrieved 2009-05-02. 
2. ^ Girish Dwivedi, Shridhar Dwivedi (2007) (PDF). History of Medicine: Sushruta – the Clinician – Teacher par Excellence. National Informatics Centre. http://medind.nic.in/iae/t07/i4/iaet07i4p243.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-08. 
3. ^ ^{a b c d e} Kay, MA (1996). Healing with plants in the American and Mexican West. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0816516464. 
4. ^ ^{a b c} Raphael, Sandra; Blunt, Wilfrid (1994). The Illustrated herbal. London: Frances Lincoln. ISBN 0-7112-0914-6. 
5. ^ Slikkerveer, L. J. (1990). Plural medical systems in the Horn of Africa: the legacy of "Sheikh" Hippocrates. London: Kegan Paul International. ISBN 0-7103-0203-7. 
6. ^ García Sánchez, E; Carabaza Bravo JM; Hernández Bermejo JE; Ramírez AJ (1990). "Árboles y arbustos en los textos agrícolas andalusíes (I)". In e Morales Ruiz Matas CA (in Spanish). Ciencias de la naturaleza en Al-Andalus : textos y estudios. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. ISBN 84-00-07727-X. 
7. ^ Fahd, Toufic. "Botany and agriculture". pp. 815. , in (Morelon & Rashed 1996, pp. 813–52)
8. ^ Diane Boulanger (2002), "The Islamic Contribution to Science, Mathematics and Technology", OISE Papers, in STSE Education, Vol. 3.
9. ^ David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
10. ^ Jonathan D. Eldredge (2003), "The Randomised Controlled Trial design: unrecognized opportunities for health sciences librarianship", Health Information and Libraries Journal 20, p. 34–44 [36].
11. ^ Bernard S. Bloom, Aurelia Retbi, Sandrine Dahan, Egon Jonsson (2000), "Evaluation Of Randomized Controlled Trials On Complementary And Alternative Medicine", International Journal of Technology Assessment in Health Care 16 (1), p. 13–21 [19].
12. ^ Ortiz de Montellano, B (1975). "Empirical Aztec medicine". Science 188 (4185): 215–20. doi:10.1126/science.1090996. PMID 1090996. 
13. ^ ^{a b} Heinrich, M; Pieroni A; Bremner P; (2005). "Plants as medicines". In Prance G & Nesbitt M. The Cultural history of plants. Routledge. pp. 205–238. ISBN 0415927463. 
14. ^ Acharya, D; Anshu S (2008). Indigenous Herbal Medicines: Tribal Formulations and Traditional Herbal Practices. Jaipur: Aavishkar Publishers. ISBN 9788179102527. 
15. ^ Laguerre, Michel S. (1987). Afro-Caribbean folk medicine. New York: Bergin & Garvey. ISBN 0-89789-113-9. 
16. ^ Morton, JF (1975). "Current folk remedies of northern Venezuela". Quarterly Journal of Crude Drug Research 13: 97–121.