History of Isan

The history of Isan has been determined by its geography: situated between Cambodia, Laos and Thailand. 'Isan' means northeast. The name 'Isan' comes from the name of the administrative division first issued by Siam's King Rama VI (the previous division began in the reign of Rama V) in early twentieth century. Later this term has been widely used 'unofficially' for the Northeastern Region, or 'Phak Tawan- Ok Chiang Nua'.

Isan has been dominated by each in turn, although its relative infertility meant it was more often a battleground than a prize. Rather than being incorporated into the respective empires of each power, the area was divided into statelets ("muang") each paying tribute to one or more powers under the mandala system.

Throughout the 20th century, the Thai government took steps to cement Isan's status as a part of Thailand and to de-emphasise the Lao origins of its population: a process known as "Thaification".

The majority of people in present- day Isan is Lao-speaking, only in the southern part which is mixed with Khmer and Thai- speaking people.

Prehistory

Isan's most important prehistoric sites are the settlement of Ban Chiang (Udon Thani Province) and the cliff paintings at Pha Taem (Ubon Ratchathani Province), dated to around 3000 BC and 1500 BC respectively. The Ban Chiang site is particularly important, as it shows traces of a Bronze Age culture. Some Thai nationalist historians have taken these sites as evidence that the ancestors of the Thai and Lao people were already in the region at this time, but the historical consensus is that their migration to the area is of a later date.

Early history

The first major civilisation to occupy Isan was the Dvaravati culture. This was an Indianised civilisation of the Mon people, which flourished in much of the area of modern-day Thailand from the 6th century. The most important legacy of the Dvaravati was the Buddhist religion. It was in this period that the characteristically south-east Asian Buddha images evolved.

Khmer empire

From the 11th century, the Dvaravati/Mon culture was increasingly displaced by the empire of the related Khmer people, centred on Angkor. The Khmer built a number of temples in southern Isan, most notably at Phanom Rung and Phimai, which lie on the Ancient Khmer Highway.

ukhothai

The Thai kingdom of Sukhothai broke free from the Khmer empire around 1238 AD. Although Isan is not thought to have been a part of the Sukhothai kingdom, Sukhothai did force the Khmer empire to retreat to its Cambodian heartlands, leaving Isan in the hands of fragmented "muang" or statelets. However, many Khmer- speaking people remained and are still a prominent fixture in the area,constituting the majority in present-day Surin Province, 42% of the population in Buriram Province and are also numerous in part of Sisaket Province and Nakhon Ratchasima Province.

These enjoyed varying degrees of independence, paying tribute under the mandala system to whichever regional power was dominant at the time.

However the history of Isan from the period of the retreat of Khmer empire to the end of the eighteenth century was 'silent'. Only remains or ruins from ancient times have existed. Indeed, no details about communities in Isan were mentioned in contemporary sources, such as Ayutthaya's Chronicles or Code. (except Nakhon Ratchasima, which was newly founded, by Ayutthaya Kingdom, in the seventeenth century as the frontier's stronghold of Ayutthaya Kingdom.)

Lan Xang

The Lao kingdom of Lan Xang (Lan Chang) was established in Luang Prabang in 1353 by Fa Ngum, with help from the Khmers. This kingdom was to provide Isan with much of its later population. As the Khmer empire continued to retreat under pressure from the Thai kingdom of Ayutthaya, Lan Xang was able to expand its influence in Isan. Lao settlers moved into northern Isan between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries, and into southern Isan from the 18th century onwards.

Lan Xang split into the three kingdoms of Luang Prabang, Vientiane and Champasak, following the death of king Surinyavonsa in 1694. The three quickly fell to Burmese invaders.

iam

This new power vacuum was filled by the newly founded Siamese kingdoms,Thonburi and Bangkok, following the fall of Ayutthaya to the Burmese. Isan area and Laos were divided into a series of "muang" with varying degrees of independence, but each paying tribute to Siam.

During late eighteenth century to early nineteenth century, there was struggle between three Laotian Kingdoms (Luang Prabang, Vientiane, Champassak). The 'losers' began migrating or took refuge into the area later called Isan. Some groups recognized the superior status of new Siamese Kingdoms, Thonburi and late Bangkok. Their leaders were granted 'fiefdom' and title of 'governor', and became subjects of Siamese King. New towns were founded such as Chaiyaphum, Udorn Thani, Khon Kaen, Ubon Ratchathani. In 1827, King Anouvong (or Chao Anu) of Vientiane rebelled against the Siamese king, in an attempt to restore its complete independence. Eventually he was defeated after the seizure of Korat. The defeat of his revolt was followed by new generation of forced population transfers from defeated Laotian kingdom to Isan, further increasing the dominance of Lao culture in the region but weakening the "muang" of modern-day Laos. At the same time, Siam influence in the region became enormous. However, according to traditional rule, the governors of these new towns were semi- autonomous. They had right to rule, or tax their own subjects but, also part of their incomes might be transfer to Bangkok periodically. If there was war, these local rulers did have duty to send troops, or defend Siam.

Siam gave up its claims to the latter, Laotian Kingdoms (Luang Prabang and Champasak), to France in treaties of 1893 and 1904, leaving Isan as the kingdom's north-east frontier, as the buffer zone between French Indochina and Siam.

The last major rebellion in Isan took place in 1902, but it was quickly defeated. The rebellion broke out when the Minister of Interior, Prince Damrong Rajanubhab, introduced the "thesaphiban" administration system, which transferred much power from the traditional provincial governors (drawn from the local nobility) to the newly established commissioners of the "monthon", civil servants appointed by Bangkok. This first hit the previous semi- autonomous status of Isan towns.

In the 20th century, due to the threat of France, Siam gradually consolidated its control over Isan through a programme of "Thaification". The introduction of a national school system in the 1920s replaced instruction by monks in the Isan Lao language with teaching in the Thai language only. Radio and television, when they began, also broadcast in Thai. They included (and still do) twice daily broadcasts of the national anthem and plentiful tributes to the Thai king.

Even after the Revolution in 1932, which the democratic rule started, Isan had been ignored from Thai government. Most of the region was underdeveloped. Apparently no new railroads or roads were built. Although the biggest part of Thailand, there are still only two rail lines while most of modern roads were built in the sixties and seventies.

Communism

In the latter half of the 20th century, Isan was perceived by the Thai government as a potential breeding ground for Communism. The region's poverty, special history, remoteness and inaccessible terrain all contributed to this fear.

Inevitably, the extent to which Communist insurgents were a real threat in Isan is hard to determine. It is known that there were a number of political attacks from the 1960s onwards, and that Communist activists and equipment entered the region from Laos. On the other hand, the number of guerillas probably never exceeded a few thousand, and the combination of action by the security forces and the offers of amnesties had largely ended the threat by the early 1980s.

US bases

The fight against Communism persuaded the government to allow the establishment of a number of US bases in Isan, notably in the provinces of Nakhon Ratchasima, Nakhon Phanom, Udon Thani and Ubon Ratchathani. Although the bases were directed at Communists in Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam, they had an indirect effect in promoting development and opposing Communism in Isan. The bases required the creation of improved transport links, facilitating the integration of Isan with the rest of Thailand. The most important of these were the "Thanon Mitraphap" or "Friendship Highways", which linked the region's major cities with each other, with Bangkok and with the eastern seaboard. They remain Isan's primary road links. Complemented by Thai government programs to build minor roads, these projects did much to bind rural Isan more closely to the cities and to Bangkok.

The number of US servicemen reached its peak in 1969 at 50,000 [http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/Chapt3.htm#_ftn8] . This influx of US personnel also had a direct effect in exposing the region to western culture. This helped to promote the development of the region, but it also created a sizable sex industry in the vicinity of the bases. Finally, the US military presence contributed substantial sums of money to the area's economy. The bases were closed at the end of the Vietnam War in 1975.

Development

The Thai government promoted development in Isan as one weapon in the fight against Communism. In particular, Field Marshal Sarit Dhanarajata, who took control of the country in 1958, was a native of Isan and promoted a number of development projects there.

From the 1960s onwards, the government launched a string of development programmes aimed wholly or in part at Isan. These began with a five year development plan announced in 1961 and backed by US aid. An Accelerated Rural Development Programme followed in 1964, again with US support. This was administered by provincial governors in the hope of circumventing the inefficiencies of central government, but it could not evade the problems of bureaucracy, corruption and a conservative mindset which hampered all development efforts.

1960s projects to introduce improved crop strains have been criticised for forcing farmers to take out loans to pay for the seed, fertiliser and equipment required, while reducing genetic diversity. Even in the 1970s, government per capita spending on rural assistance programmes was lower in Isan than anywhere else in Thailand [http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/Chapt3.htm#_ftn35] .

Nevertheless, much was achieved: Mobile Rural Development Units focusing on health education trained about 1000 field workers per year in the late 1960s; hydroelectric schemes such as Nam Pong/Ubon Ratana power station in Khon Kaen and Lam Pao in Kalasin provided electricity; modern toilets were distributed; government rice purchase programmes maintained prices.

Education efforts increased the proportion of children attending high school from 4.4% in 1970 to 80% by 2000. Universities were established, beginning with Khon Kaen in 1964. Ubon Ratchathani, Suranee University of Technology and Mahasarakham University followed.

Recent history

The most important recent political issue in Isan has been the construction of the Pak Mun dam in the district of Khong Chiam, in Ubon Ratchathani Province. The project was completed in 1994, flooding 117 square kilometres of land and displacing around 3000 families. The project has been criticised for insufficient compensation payments, adverse effects on the fisheries of the Mun River, and failure to produce the projected power output.

Protesters against the Pak Mun dam joined with other grassroots activists in 1995 to form the Assembly of the Poor, a group seeking to promote the involvement of the poor in decision-making processes, and to have their interests taken into account. The group has organised a number of protests against the project in Bangkok. The now deposed prime minister, Thaksin Shinawatra, responded by claiming that NGO activists are trouble-makers who do not reflect the opinions of ordinary people.

A longer lasting political issue in Isan, however, has been the ability of political parties, notably closely affiliated with or part of, the populist traditional leadership in the area, including Thailand's old generals, to sway the electorate to vote for them en masses, often by buying votes but more effectively by delegating vote buying to a select few representatives. Isan's electorate are not widely attuned to the clash between their interests and the vested interests of those they vote into office.

External links

* [http://www.aznet.net/~rmyers/ Isan: The People and Region of Northeast Thailand by Ron Myers]
* [http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~karnchan/ Isan History by Char Karnchanapee]