History of the Philippines (Before 1521)

This article covers the vast historical period of the Philippines before the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. This period had shown the immense change that took hold of the archipelago from Stonge Age cultures in 30000 BC to the emergence of developed thalassocratic civilizations in the 4th century AD.

Stone-Age humans arrive (30000 BC)

The most widely known theory of the prehistoric peopling of the Philippines is that of H. Otley Beyer, founder of the Anthropology Department of the University of the Philippines. Heading that department for 40 years, Professor Beyer became the unquestioned expert on Philippine prehistory., exerting early leadership in the field and influencing the first generation of Filipino historians and anthropologists, archaeologists, paleontologists, geologists,and students the world over. [Harvnb|Zaide|1999|p=32, citing Beyer Memorial Issue on the Prehistory of the Philippines in "Philippine Studies", Vol. 15:No. 1 (January 1967).] According to Dr. Beyer, the ancestors of the Filipinos came in different "waves of migration", as follows: [Harvnb|Zaide|1999|pp=32-34.] :# "Dawn Man", a cave-man type who was similar to Java man, Peking Man, and other Asian homo sapiens of 250,000 years ago.:# The aboriginal pygmy group, the Negritos, who arrived between 25,000 and 30,000 years ago via land bridges.:# The sea-faring tool-using Indonesian group who arrived about 5,000 to 6,000 years ago and were the first immigrants to reach the Philippines by sea.:# The seafaring, more civilized Malays who brought the Iron age culture and were the real colonizers and dominant cultural group in the prehispanic Philippines.

Unfortunately, there is no definite evidence, archaeological or historical, to support this "migration theory". On the contrary, there are sufficient reasons for doubting it, including the following: [Harvnb|Zaide|1999|pp=34-35.] :# Beyer used the 19th century scientific methods of progressive evolution and migratory diffusion as the basis for his hypothesis. These methods have now been proven to be too simple and unreliable to explain the prehistoric peopling of the Philippines.:# The empirical archaeological data for the theory was based on surface finds and mere conjecture, withmuch imagination and unproven data included.:# Later findings contradicted the migration theory and the existence of the "Dawn Man" postulated by Beyer.:# Undue credit is given to Malays as the original settlers of the lowland regions and the dominant cultural transmitter.

The earliest human remains known in the Philippines are the fossilized fragments of a skull and jawbone of three individuals, discovered on May 28, 1962 by Dr. Robert B. Fox, an American anthropologist of the National Museum. [Harvnb|Scott|1984|p=14; Harvnb|Zaide|1999|p=35, citing Harvnb|Jocano|1975|p=64.] These fragments are collectively called "Tabon Man" after the place where they were found on the west coast of Palawan. Tabon Cave appears to be akind of Stone Age factory, with both finished stone flake tools and waste core flakes having been found at four separate levels in the main chamber. Charcoal left from three assemblages of cooking fires there has been Carbon-14 dated to roughly 7,000, 20,000, and 22,000 BCE.Harvnb|Scott|1984|pp=14-15.] (In Mindanao, the existence and importance of these prehistoric tools was noted by famed José Rizal himself, because of his acquaintance with Spanish and German scientific archaeologists in the 1880s, while in Europe.)

Tabon Cave is named after the "Tabon Bird" (Tabon Scrubfowl, Megapodius Cumingii), which deposited thick hard layers of guano during periods when the cave was uninhabited so that succeeding groups of tool-makers settled on a cement-like floor of bird dung. That the inhabitants were actually engaged in tool manufacture is indicated that about half of the 3,000 recovered specemins examined are discarded cores of a material which had to be transported from some distance. The Tabon man fossils are considered to have come from a third group of inhabitants, who worked the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BCE. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50 thousand years ago.

Physical anthropologists who have examined the Tabon Man skullcap are agreed that it belonged to modern man, homo sapiens, as distinguished from the mid-Piiestocene homo erectus species. This indicates that Tabon Man was "Pre-Mongoloid" ("Mongoloid" being the term anthropologists apply to the racial stock which entered Southeast Asia during the Holocene and absorbed earlier peoples to produce the modern Malay, Indonesian, Filipino, and "Pacific" peoples). Two experts have given the opinion that the mandible is "Australian" in physical type, and that the skullcap measurements are most nearly like the Ainus or Tasmanians. Nothing can be concluded about Tabon man's physical appearance from the recovered skull fragments except that he was not a Negrito. [Harvnb|Scott|1984|p=15]

The custom of Jar Burial, which ranges from Sri Lanka, to the Plain of Jars, in Laos, to Japan, also was practiced in the Tabon caves. A spectacular example of a secondary burial jar is owned by the National Museum, a "National Treasure", with a jar lid topped with two figures, one the deceased, arms crossed, hands touching the shoulders, the other a steersman, both seated in a "proa", with only the mast missing from the piece. Secondary burial was practiced across all the islands of the Philippines during this period, with the bones reburied, some in the burial jars. Seventy-eight earthenware vessels were recovered from the Manunggul cave, Palawan, specifically for burial.

About 30,000 years ago, the Negritos, who became the ancestors of today's Aetas, or Aboriginal Filipinos, descended from more northerly abodes in Central Asia passing through the Indian Subcontinent and reaching the Andamanese Islands. From thereon, the Negritos continued to venture on land bridges reaching Southeast Asia. While some of the Negritos settled in Malaysia, becoming what is now the Orang Asli people, several Negrito tribes continued on to the Philippines through Borneo. They had a Paleolithic culture. They live a nomadic lifestyle, roaming the forests and living in crude dwellings consisting of leaves and sticks. But they were skillfully adept in using the bow and arrow as a primary defense weapon. They also gathered wild plants for consumption.

3000 BC onward

After the last Ice Age (which ended about 10,000 years ago), the sea level rose an estimated 35m (110 feet), which cut the land bridges, filling the shallow seas north of Borneo. Thus the only method of migration left was the dugout "proa", built by felling trees and hollowing them out with adzes. An image of this method of travel can be seen on the Manunggul Jar, a National Treasure of the Philippines.

About 3000 BC, a loose confederation of peoples known as 'Nesiots', from what today is Indonesia, came to the Philippines. They were to become the ancestors of the present-day Luzon and Mindanao hill tribes. There were two waves of successive Nesiot immigration. The first wave saw a people who have light complexions, aquiline noses, thin lips, and deep-set eyes. The second wave of migration were shorter and heavier in physique, having darker complexion, thick lips, large noses, and heavy jaws. Those of the second wave of migration had epics and folk stories mixed with superstitions. From these people came the Luzon hill tribes.

Austronesian-speakers arrive 4000-2000 BC

Starting 4000-2000 BC [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Senate/5727/language.html Capitol Hill] .vc|date=August 2008 Accessed October 12, 2006.]
Austronesian groups descended from Yunnan Plateau in China and settled in what is now the Philippines by sailing using "balangays" or by traversing land bridges coming from Taiwan. Most of these Austronesians primarily used the Philippines as a pit-stop to the outlying Pacific islands or to the Indonesian archipelago further south. Those who were left behind became the ancestors of the present-day Filipinos. The Cagayan valley of northern Luzon contains large stone tools as evidence for the hunters of the big game of the time: the elephant-like stegodon, rhinoceros, crocodile, tortoise, pig and deer. The Austronesians pushed the Negritos to the mountains, while they occupied the fertile coastal plains.

100 BC onward

The Philippines is believed by some historians to be the island of Chryse, the "Golden One," which is the the name given by ancient Greek writers in reference to an island rich in gold east of India. Pomponius Mela, Marinos of Tyre and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea mentioned this island in 100 BC, and it is basically the equivalent to the Indian "Suvarnadvipa", the "Island of Gold." Josephus calls it in Latin "Aurea", and equates the island with biblical "Ophir", from where the ships of Tyre and Solomon brought back gold and other trade items. The Visayan Islands, particularly Cebu had earlier encounter with the Greek traders in 21 AD. [ [http://cebu-online.com/swum/html/exhibits.html Cebu, a Port City in Prehistoric and in Present Times] . Accessed September 05, 2008.]

Ptolemy locates the islands of Chryse east of the "Khruses Kersonenson", the "Golden Peninsula," i.e. the Malaya Penisula. North of Chryse in the "Periplus" was "Thin", which some consider the first European reference to China. In about the 200 BC, there arose a practice of using gold eye covers, and then, gold facial orifice covers to adorn the dead resulting in an increase of ancient gold finds. During the Qin dynasty and the Tang dynasty, China was well aware of the golden lands far to the south. The Buddhist pilgrim "I-Tsing" mentions "Chin-Chou", "Isle of Gold" in the archipelago south of China on his way back from India. Medieval Muslims refer to the islands as the Kingdoms of Zabag and Wakwak as rich in gold, referring to the eastern islands of the Malay archipelago, the location of present-day Philippines and Eastern Indonesia. Zabag was based in what would later become the Luzon Empire. [http://vedicempire.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=21&Itemid=26 Vedic Empire] . Accessed September 02, 2008.] [http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/sanfotsizabag.htm Zabag] . Accessed September 02, 2008.]

More than a millennium later, the popularity of dental gold to decorate the teeth significantly increased the amount of gold found at archaeological sites. When the Spanish came they discovered an abundance of gold used among the people of the Philippine islands. The Portugese explorer Pedro Fidalgo in 1545 found gold so abundant on Luzon the inhabitants were willing to trade two pezoes of gold for one pezo of silver. When the Portuguese first arrived, most of the gold traded into Brunei came from Luzon. That island was known as "Lusung Dao" or "Golden Luzon" to the Chinese who also traded for gold in this region.

Thalassocracies and international trade (400AD - 1521)

The emergence of "Barangay" city-states and trade (500AD-800AD)

Since at least the 3rd century, the indigenous peoples were in contact with other Southeast Asian and East Asian nations.

Fragmented ethnic groups established numerous city-states formed by the assimilation of several small political units known as "barangay" each headed by a "Datu" or headman (still in use among non-Hispanic Filipino ethnic groups) and answerable to a king, titled Rajah. Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became more culturally homogenous by the 4th century. Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished among the noblemen in this era. Many of the "barangay" were, to varying extents, under the "de-jure" jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires, among them the Malay Sri Vijaya, Javanese Majapahit, Brunei, Melaka empires, although "de-facto" had established their own independent system of rule. Trading links with Sumatra, Borneo, Thailand, Java, China, India, Arabia, Japan and the Ryukyu Kingdom flourished during this era. A thalassocracy had thus emerged based on international trade.

Each barangay consisted of about 100 families. Some barangays were big, such as "Zubu" (Cebu), Butuan, "Maktan" (Mactan), "Bigan" (Vigan), and "Selurong" (Manila). Each of these big barangays had a population of more than 2,000.

In the earliest times, the items which were prized by the peoples included jars, which were a symbol of wealth throughout South Asia, and later metal, salt and tobacco. In exchange, the peoples would trade feathers, rhino horn, hornbill beaks, beeswax, birds nests, resin, rattan.²

In the period between the 7th century to the beginning of the 1400s, numerous prosperous centers of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila Bay, [http://www.pasay.gov.ph/history%20kingdom%20new.htmdead link|date=May 2008|url=http://www.pasay.gov.ph/history%20kingdom%20new.htm.] , Cebu, Butuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdoms of Zabag and Wak-Wak situated in Pampanga [ [http://asiapacificuniverse.com/pkm/sanfotsizabag.htm The Medieval Geography of Sanfotsi and Zabag vc|date=August 2008 ] ] and Aparri (which specialized in trade with Japan and the Kingdom of Ryukyu in Okinawa).

The growth of Literature and Hindu-Buddhist culture (900AD - 1380)

With the growth of a thalassocratic civilization, came the growth of literature. The Laguna Copperplate Inscription is from 900 AD (Saka Era year 822) is considered to be the end of prehistory as far as documents are concerned. It was found in the Laguna de Bay of Manila. In 1989, the National Museum acquired it. The inscription forgives the descendants of "Namwaran" from a debt of 926.4 grams of gold, and is granted by the chief of Tondo (an area in Manila) and the authorities of Paila, Binwangan and Pulilan, which are all locations in Luzon. The words are a mixture of Sanskrit, Old Malay, Old Javanese and Old Tagalog. The subject matter proves the highly developed society that existed in the Philippines prior to the Spanish colonization, as well as refuting earlier claims of the Philippines being a cultural isolate in Asia; the references to the Chief of Medan in Indonesia claim the cultural and trade links with various other affiliated empires and territories in other parts of the Malay Archipelago. (See Nusantara).

The Luzon Empire (1279 - 1521)

The Luzon Empire was an ancient empire once located around the Manila Bay region of the Philippines. Its capital was Ancient Tondo. Its territories covered most of what is now Central Luzon, extending from the delta region that surrounds Manila Bay, all the way into the interior along head waters of the surrounding rivers in the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan. During the Ming dynasty, the Empire continued the open door policy to foreigners that its predecessor, Kingdom of Zabag, implemented. When the Spanish arrived in Luzon there existed merchant communities from China and Japan on land granted by the king of the Empire.

Starting the 14th century, some of the independent city-states or "barangays" of the northern Philippines became tributaries of the Ming Dynasty of China.

Caste System

By the 9th century, a highly developed society had already established several castes with set professions: The "Datu" or ruling class, the "Maharlika" or noblemen, "Timawa" the freemen, and the dependent class which is divided into two, the "Aliping Namamahay" (Slave) and "Aliping Saguiguilid" (Serfs).

The emergence of Baybayin script from Classical Kawi (1200 onwards)

One example of pre-Spanish Philippine script on a burial jar, derived from Brahmi survives, as most of the writing was done on perishable bamboo or leaves; an earthenware burial jar dated 1200s or 1300s with script was found in Batangas. This script is called in Tagalog "Baybayin" or "Alibata".

The growth of Islamic Sultanates (1380 - 1521)

In 1380, Makhdum Karim, the first Islamic missionary to the Philippines brought Islam to the Archipelago. Subsequent visits of Arab, Malay and Javanese missionaries helped strengthen the Islamic faith of the Filipinos, most of whom (except for those in the south) would later become Christian under the Spanish colonization. The Sultanate of Sulu, the largest Islamic Kingdom of South East Asia and the Malay Archipelago, encompassed parts of Malaysia and the Philippines. The royal house of the Sultanate claim descent from the Prophet Muhammad.

Around 1405, the year that the war over succession ended in the Majapahit Empire, Sufi traders introduced Islam into the Hindu-Malayan empires and for about the next century the southern half of Luzon and the islands south of it were subject to the various Muslim sultanates of Borneo. During this period, the Japanese established a trading post at Aparri and maintained a loose sway over northern Luzon.

cientific claims

Philippine history and anthropologists had only until very recently been limited to the rare artifacts that were discovered after the Spanish period, which had seen many artifacts from the pre-Hispanic era destroyed or reconverted. A good example of which is the Spanish walled city of Intramuros in Manila, whose stone bricks were ripped from the original fortified city wall (known in Malay/tagalog as a Kota/kuta) of pre-hispanic "Maynilad". This can explain the development of theories over the 20th century.

In February 1976, Fritjof Voss, a German scientist who studied the geology of the Philippines, questioned the validity of the theory of land bridges. He maintained that the Philippines was never part of mainland Asia. He claimed that it arose from the bottom of the sea and, as the thin Pacific crust moved below it, continued to rise. It continues to rise today. The country lies along great Earth faults that extend to deep submarine trenches. The resulting violent earthquakes caused what is now the land masses forming the Philippines to rise to the surface of the sea. Dr. Voss also pointed out that when scientific studies were done on the earth's crust from 1964 to 1967, it was discovered that the 35-kilometer- thick crust underneath China does not reach the Philippines. Thus, the latter could not have been a land bridge to the Asian mainland. The matter of who the first settlers were has not been really resolved. This is being disputed by anthropologists, as well as Professor H. Otley Beyer, who claims that the first inhabitants of the Philippines came from the Malay Peninsula. The Malays now constitute the largest portion of the populace and what Filipinos now have is an Austronesian culture.

Anthropologist F. Landa Jocano of the University of the Philippines contends that what fossil evidence of ancient men show is that they not only migrated to the Philippines, but also to New Guinea, Borneo, and Australia. He says that there is no way of determining if they were Negritoes at all. However, what is sure is that there is evidence the Philippines was inhabited as early as 21,000 or 22,000 years ago. In 1962, a skull cap and a portion of a jaw, presumed to be those of a human being, were found in a Tabon Cave in Palawan Province. The discovery may show that man came earlier to the Philippines than to the Malay Peninsula. If this is true, the first inhabitants of the Philippines did not come from the Malay Peninsula. Jocano further believes that the present Filipinos are products of the long process of evolution and movement of people. This not only holds true for Filipinos, but for the Indonesians and the Malays of Malaysia, as well. No group among the three is culturally or racially dominant. Hence, Jocano says that it is not correct to attribute the Filipino culture as being Malayan in orientation. According to Jocano's findings, the people of the prehistoric islands of Southeast Asia were of the same population as the combination of human evolution that occurred in the islands of Southeast Asia about 1.9 million years ago. The claimed evidence for this is fossil material found in different parts of the region and the movements of other people from the Asian mainland during historic times. He states that these ancient men cannot be categorized under any of the historically identified ethnic groups (Malays, Indonesians, kayumangging Filipinos) of today. Some Filipino ethnic groups were Hindu-Buddhist pagans while others were Muslims. The Hindu-Buddhist pagans were converted to Christianity by the Spaniards. The Americans later arrived and introduced further cultural changes, which made the Filipinos more and more different from the peoples of other Southeast Asian countries.

Philippine historian William Henry Scott has pointed out that Palawan and the Calamianes Islands are separated from Borneo by water nowhere deeper than 100 meters, that south of a line drawn between Saigon and Brunei does the depth of the South China Sea nowhere exceeds 100 meters, and that the Strait of Malacca reaches 50 meters only at one point. [Harvnb|Scott|1984|p=1.] Scott also asserts that the Sulu Archipelago is not the peak of a submerged mountain range connecting Mindinao and Borneo, but the exposed edge of three small ridges produced by techtonic tilting of the sea bottom in recent geologic times. According to Scott, it is clear that Palawan and the Calamianes do not stand on a submerged land bridge, but were once a hornlike protrubance on the shoulder of a continent whose southern shorline used to be the present islands of Java and Borneo.Mindoro and the Calamianes are separated by a channel more than 500 meters deep [Harvnb|Scott|1984|pp=1 and Map 2 in Frontspiece.]

Notes

References

*Citation
last=Scott
first=William Henry
authorlink=William Henry Scott (historian)
title=Prehispanic Source Materials for the study of Philippine History
publisher=New Day Publishers
year=1984
isbn=971-10-0226-4
accessdate=2008-08-05
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bR2XAQAACAAJ.
*Citation
last=Zaide
first=Sonia M.
title=The Philippines: A Unique Nation
edition=Second
year=1999
publisher=All-Nations Publishing
isbn=971-642-071-4
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=otdEGQAACAAJ.

Further reading

*Citation
last=Jocano
first=F. Landa
title=Philippine Prehistory: An Anthropological Overview of the Beginnings of Filipino Society and Culture
publisher=Philippine Center for Advanced Studies, University of the Philippines System
url=http://books.google.com/books?id=xwriGAAACAAJ
year=1975

External links

* [http://www.philippines-timeline.com/ The Timeline of the History of the Philippines]