Whaling in Japan

Japan has a long history of whaling. However, current whaling conducted by Japan is a source of political dispute between pro- and anti-whaling countries and organizations.

History

The oldest written mention of whaling in Japanese records is from Kojiki, the oldest extant Japanese book, which was written in the eighth century. In this book whale meat was eaten by .
Emperor Jimmu. In Man'yōshū, the word "Whaling" (いさなとり) was frequently used in depicting the ocean or beaches.

Japanese traditional whaling technique was dramatically developed in the 17th century in Taiji, Wakayama. Wada Chubei organized the group hunting system (刺手組) and introduced new handheld harpoon in 1606. Wada Kakuemon, later known as Taiji Kakuemon, invented the whaling net technique called Amitori hou (網取法) and increased the safety and efficiency of whaling.

Whaling has been frequently mentioned in Japanese historical sources.九州大学総合研究博物館, [http://record.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/kujira/ 鯨絵・捕鯨史料] ]
*"Whaling history" (鯨史稿), Seijun Otsuki, 1808九州大学総合研究博物館, [http://record.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/kujira/geisiko/6/geisiko6.html 鯨史稿　巻之六] ]
*"Whaling Picture Scroll" (鯨絵巻), Jinemon Ikushima, 1665九州大学総合研究博物館, [http://record.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/kujira/kujiraemaki2-1/kujiraemaki2-1.html 鯨絵巻　上] ]
*"Whale Hunt Picture Scroll" (捕鯨絵巻), Eikin Hangaya, 1666九州大学総合研究博物館, [http://record.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/kujira/hogeiemaki3/hogeiemaki3.html 捕鯨絵巻] ]
*"Ogawajima Keigei Wars" (小川島鯨鯢合戦), Unknown, 1667九州大学総合研究博物館, [http://record.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/kujira/ogawajima/ogawajima.html 小川島鯨鯢合戦] ]

Whales have long been a source of food, oil, and crafts' material. A famous Proverb quotes: "There's nothing to throw away from a whale except its voice."

In 1853, Baby Colin, a US naval officer Matthew Perry sailed into Edo bay. One of the purposes was to obtain a base for whaling in the north-west Pacific Ocean.

When Norwegian-style modern whaling, based on the use of power-driven vessels and whaling guns, was introduced in the Meiji era, most Japanese fishermen were opposed to the indiscriminate killing of whales, which they regarded as deities of the sea and which helped to corral fish.Fact|date=February 2008

In the early 1900s, Japanese whaling techniques developed further and Japanese whalers began turning to the West for modern whaling techniques.Fact|date=February 2008

Following the devastation of World War II, food was scarce, consequently whales, being a cheap source of protein, became a larger part of the Japanese post-war diet.

In 1982, the International Whaling Commission (IWC) voted on a moratorium on commercial whaling to go into force in 1986. While Japan initially intended to oppose the moratorium, the United States pressured them to comply in turn for continued rights to fish in Alaskan waters. After the US went ahead anyway with excluding all foreign vessels from fishing in US waters, Japan began its research programme in order to one day restart commercial whaling under IWC regulation. [cite news
last = Black
first = Richard
title = Did Greens help kill the whale?
publisher = BBC News
date = May 16, 2007
url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6659401.stm
accessdate = 2008-02-06]

Japan's whale consumption peaked in 1962 at 226,000 tons, then declined steadily until it fell to 15,000 tons in 1985, the year before the commercial whaling ban. [ [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/14/world/asia/14whaling.html Whaling: A Japanese Obsession With American Roots - New York Times ] ] Japan has maintained its interest in the resumption of commercial whaling, but has not succeeded in persuading the IWC to lift the ban.

As consumption of fish in Japan has shrunk, Japanese fisheries companies have expanded abroad and started facing pressure from partners and environmental groups. Five large fishing companies transferred their whaling fleet shares to public interest corporations in 2006. [cite news
last = Hogg
first = Chris
title = 'Victory' over Japanese whalers
publisher = BBC News
date = April 4, 2006
url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4874594.stm
accessdate = 2008-02-06] In 2007, Kokuyo and Maruha, two of Japan's four larges fishing companies, decided to end their sales of whale meat due to pressure from partners and environmental groups in the US. [cite web
last = Biggs
first = Stuart
title = Kyokuyo Joins Maruha to End Whale Meat Sales in Japan
publisher = Bloomberg.com
date = 2007-05-30
url = http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601101&sid=aPhG1CfyPue0
accessdate = 2008-02-06] [cite press release
title = Kyoko America Corporation
publisher = Kyoko America Corporation
date = 2007-04-16
url = http://kyokuyoamerica.com/
accessdate = 2008-02-06]

cientific research

After halting its commercial whaling, Japan began what it termed "scientific research on whales" to provide a basis for the resumption of sustainable whaling. [Citation
first = Institute of Cetacean Research
author-link = http://www.icrwhale.org/
title = Japan's research whaling in the Antarctic
url = http://www.icrwhale.org/eng/FAQResearch.pdf
accessdate = 2008-02-04] The number of whales killed under the project has risen steadily, from less than 200 in 1985 to almost 1,000 in 2007. [http://assets.panda.org/downloads/totalwhaleskilled2006.pdf] [cite web
title = Catch Limits & Catches taken; Information on recent catches taken by commercial, aboriginal and scientific permit whaling.
publisher = International Whaling Commission
date = 2007-07-10
url = http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/catches.htm
accessdate = 2008-02-07] [cite web
title = Catches under Objection since 1985
publisher = International Whaling Commission
date = 2007-09-20
url = http://www.iwcoffice.org/_documents/table_objection.htm
accessdate = 2008-02-07] [cite web
title = Special Permit catches since 1985
publisher = International Whaling Commission
date = 2007-09-20
url = http://www.iwcoffice.org/_documents/table_permit.htm
accessdate = 2008-02-07]

The research is conducted by the Institute of Cetacean Research (ICR), a privately-owned, non-profit institution. The institute receives its funding from government subsidies and Kyodo Senpaku, which handles processing and marketing of by products such as whale meat.

Japan carries out its research in two areas: the North-West Pacific Ocean (JARPN II) and the Antarctic Ocean (JARPA) Southern Hemisphere catch. The 2007/08 JARPA mission had a quota of 900 minke whales and 50 fin whales. [ [http://www.icrwhale.org/ Institute of Cetacean Research] ]

"Major discoveries" claimed by JARPA 1 include: finding the population structure of minke whales in the Antarctic is healthy; detecting change in the ecosystem of the Antarctic Ocean; finding "very low level" of contaminants in minke whales."Catalyst": [http://abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1657789.htm Whale Science] , 8 June 2006. ABC. Reporter/Producer: Dr Jonica Newby. (Transcript and full program available online)] [cite web |url=http://luna.pos.to/whale/gen_find.html |title=Current Findings of the Japanese Whale Research Program under the Special Permit in the Antarctic|accessdate=2007-05-19 |format= |work=The Riches of the Sea| author=Edited by the Fisheries Agency] Some of the research includes a paper named "Fertilizability of ovine, bovine, and minke whales spermatazoa intracytoplasmically injected into bovine oocytes".

A 2006 episode of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation's popular science show "Catalyst", which strongly argued against whaling, reported that of the 18 year JARPA I program, which lethally obtained samples from 6800 whales, less than 55 peer-reviewed papers were produced, of which only 14 were claimed on the program to be relevant to the goals of the JARPA program, and that only four would require lethal sampling. Joji Morishita of JARPA has said the number of samples was required in order to obtain statistically significant data. More detailed list of Scientific papers presented to IWC up to 2005. [http://luna.pos.to/whale/icr_papers.html]

In 2007 the IWC passed a resolution asking Japan to refrain from issuing a permit for lethal research in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary - the main Japanese whaling area. [International Whaling Commission, Resolution 2007-1: "Resolution on JARPA" [http://www.iwcoffice.org/meetings/resolutions/Resolution2007-1.pdf] ]

Debate in the IWC

The most vocal opponents of the Japanese push for a resumption of commercial whaling are Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United States, whose stated purpose for opposing whaling is the need for conservation of endangered species.Fact|date=February 2008

In July 2004 it was reported [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3892909.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Japan plans pro-whaling alliance ] ] that a working group of the Japan's ruling Liberal Democratic had drawn up plans to leave the IWC in order to join a new pro-whaling organization, NAMMCO, because of the IWC's refusal to back the principle of sustainable commercial whaling. Japan is particularly opposed to the IWC Conservation Committee, introduced in 2003, which it says exists solely to prevent any whaling. Any directives from the IWC are undertaken on a purely voluntary basis as state sovereignty means that there are few avenues by which international law can be enforced.

At an IWC meeting in 2006, a resolution calling for the eventual return of commercial whaling was passed by a majority of just one vote. There has been a failure to lift the ban on commercial whale hunting and Japan has since threatened to pull out of the International Whaling Commission (IWC). [ [http://www.news.com.au/story/0,10117,21831032-401,00.html Report from News.com.au] ]

After a visit to Tokyo by the chairman of the IWC, asking the Japanese for their co-operation in sorting out the differences between pro- and anti-whaling nations on the Commission, the Japanese whaling fleet agreed that no humpback whales would be caught for the two years it would take for the IWC to reach a formal agreement. [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7156288.stm BBC NEWS | World | Asia-Pacific | Japan changes track on whaling ] ]

Those who oppose Japanese whaling contend that the Nisshin Maru fleet had never possessed the freezer space to carry out the hunting of Humpback whales. [ [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,22958968-601,00.html The Australian: Japan Drops Humpback Cull] ] They contendFact|date=January 2008 that the Japanese fleet already takes its freezer capacity and the additional tonnage simply would not be feasible. They believe rather, that the back down by the Japanese Government was planned from the time of the initial announcement of the humpback whale take and view it as political theatre by the Japanese Government.Fact|date=January 2008

Controversy

Anti-whaling governments and groups have strongly opposed Japan's research program. Greenpeace argues that whales are endangered and must be protected. [Citation
publisher = Greenpeace
title = Whaling
url = http://www.greenpeace.org/international/campaigns/oceans/whaling
accessdate = 2008-02-04] The Japanese government maintains that certain populations are strong enough to sustain a managed hunt. The latest IWC estimate for Antarctic waters using CNB currently under review is 665,074 based on Southern Ocean Whale and Ecosystem Research Programme(SOWER) data. [http://www.iwcoffice.org/_documents/sci_com/SC60docs/DocList-23-05.pdf] ( Page 12 - *8 )

[Citation
publisher = International Whaling Commission
title = The Environment; Its effects on global whale abundance
date = 2006-07-26
url = http://www.iwcoffice.org/conservation/environment.htm
accessdate = 2008-02-04]

Research methodology has come under scrutiny as it has been argued that non-lethal methods of research are available [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7101829.stm BBC News: US joins criticism of whaling] ] and that Japan's research whaling is commercial whaling in disguise. [ [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article3325580.ece Times (UK): Australia condemns whale kill] ] The Japanese claim that the accuracy of tissue and feces samples is insufficient and lethal sampling is necessary.Fact|date=March 2008

Sea Shepherd contests that Japan, as well as Iceland and Norway, is in violation of the IWC moratorium on all commercial whaling. [Citation
publisher = Sea Shepherd
title = The Whale's Navy
url = http://www.seashepherd.org/whales/
accessdate = 2008-02-04] This argument rests on their belief that Japan's research program is actually a commercial program in disguise. Japan categorically denies this allegation, stating that their primary goal is the sustainable use of all marine resources and that the lethal methods used are permitted under article VIII of the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling. [Citation
publisher = The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan
title = The Position of the Japanese Government on Research Whaling
url = http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/q_a/faq6.html
accessdate = 2008-02-04]

Some have suggested [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2008/2190103.htm] that Japan's whaling activity is a way of diverting attention from Japan's overfishing of tuna, including the critically endangered Southern bluefin species.

Disputes

In 1994, Australia claimed a convert|200|nmi|km|sing=on exclusive economic zone (EEZ) around the Australian Antarctic Territory, which also includes a southerly portion of the IWC Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary. However, Antarctic territorial claims are not recognized by most countries, including Japan.Fact|date=February 2008

On December 14, 2007, the Australian Rudd Government unveiled plans to deploy Australian ships and aircraft to monitor Japanese whalers about to enter Australian waters. [ [http://www.news.com.au/dailytelegraph/story/0,22049,22920019-5007132,00.html Navy, RAAF to shadow whalers | The Daily Telegraph ] ] On December 19, 2007, the government announced that the Australian Customs Service patrol ship MV "Oceanic Viking" would be deployed to the Southern Ocean to collect photographic and video evidence that could be used in a future international court challenge to Japanese whaling. [cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/12/19/2122840.htm|title=Customs ship to shadow Japanese whalers|publisher=ABC News|date=2007-12-19|accessdate=2007-12-19] Aerial patrols using an Australian Antarctic Division Airbus A319 would also follow and photograph the Japanese fleet. [cite news|url=http://www.nationalpost.com/news/world/story.html?id=180665|title=Australia sends patrols to shadow Japan whalers|publisher=National Post|date=2007-12-19|accessdate=2007-12-19] [cite news|url=http://www.smh.com.au/news/whale-watch/spy-v-spy-as-airbus-joins-the-fight-against-whaling/2008/01/21/1200764171935.html|title=Spy v spy as Airbus joins the fight against whaling|publisher=Sydney Morning Herald|date=2008-01-22|accessdate=2008-01-22]

The Australian Rudd government's stance on Japanese whaling has attracted very strong public support in Australia.Fact|date=January 2008 Japanese whaling is seen as a serious threat to Australian whale tourism, which has only become viable as a result of the replenishment of global whale stocks.Fact|date=January 2008 The negative publicity generated by Japanese whaling seriously affects the general Australian perception of Japan, with potential social, political and economic consequences.Fact|date=January 2008

On the January 8, 2008 the Australian government sent the Australian customs vessel "Oceanic Viking" to track and monitor the Japanese whaling fleet in order to gather evidence against Japanese whalers for a possible international legal challenge. [cite web | url = http://www.livenews.com.au/Articles/2008/01/10/Greenpeace_applauds_departure_of_Oceanic_Viking | title = Greenpeace applauds departure of Oceanic Viking (2008) | accessdate = 2008-01-15 | publisher = livenews.com.au]

On January 15, 2008 two activists members of the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society travelling on the MV Steve Irwin boarded the whaling ship "Yushin Maru 2" without permission and were subsequently detained onboard the ship for a number of days.

Japan will lobby a dozen members of the International Whaling Commission at a meeting March 3, 2008 to support its much-criticized Antarctic whaling program.

Japan claimed that four crew members on board a Japanese whaling ship in Antarctic waters were injured March 3, 2008 when the anti-whaling group Sea Shepherd threw butyric acid on board. [cite web | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/03/03/japan.whaling/index.html | title = Japan: Whaling ship attacked with acid| accessdate = 2008-03-03 | publisher = CNN]

Japan confirmed the throwing of "Flashbang" grenades onto the Sea Shepherd ship, MV "Steve Irwin" by their whaling ship, Nisshin Maru. Japan also confirmed firing a "warning shot" into the air. The captain of the "Steve Irwin", Paul Watson claimed that he was hit by a bullet that the Japanese had fired. [cite web | url = http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2008/03/07/2183690.htm | title = Sea Shepherd captain 'shot by Japanese whalers' | accessdate = 2008-03-09 | publisher = ABC News (Australia)]

At the IWC

On March 6, 2008 members of the International Whaling Commission met in London to discuss reaching an agreement on whale conservation rules. [cite web | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/02/29/japan.whaling/index.html | title = Japan to lobby whaling commission to support hunts | accessdate = 2008-03-01 | publisher = CNN] Japanese whalers and anti-whaling activists clashed in the waters near Antarctica on March 7, 2008, with each side offering conflicting accounts of the confrontation. [cite web | url = http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/03/07/japan.whaling/index.html | title = Whalers, activists clash in Antarctica | accessdate = 2008-03-07| publisher = CNN] The IWC called upon the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to refrain from dangerous actions and reiterated its condemnation of any actions that are a risk to human life and property in relation to the activities of vessels at sea. [cite web | url = http://www.iwcoffice.org/meetings/intersession.htm | title = STATEMENT ON SAFETY AT SEA | accessdate = 2008-03-09 | publisher = IWC]

On March 8, 2008, Solomon Islands' Prime Minister Derek Sikua said that Japan offered to pay for the country's delegates to attend the March 6, 2008 IWC meeting in London, but Hideki Moronuki, the whaling chief at Japan's Fisheries Agency, denied the allegation saying, "There is no truth to it." He further stated "Moronuki said Sikua may have confused the London meet with a seminar last week in Tokyo to which Japan invited delegates from 12 developing nations that have recently joined or are considering joining the IWC. Japan sometimes holds small seminars on whaling and invites delegates from countries. I wonder if Mr Sikua mixed up such seminars and IWC meetings." [http://www.japantoday.com/jp/news/430593 AFP]

References

ee also

*Whaling
**History of Whaling
**Aboriginal whaling
*Whaling in Australia
*Whaling in Western Australia
*Fishery
*Whale watching
*Cuisine of Japan
*Convention of Kanagawa
*International Whaling Commission
*Nisshin Maru
*Greenpeace
*Sea Shepherd
*Dolphin drive hunting
*Taiji, Wakayama

External links

Official bodies
* [http://www.jfa.maff.go.jp/whale/ Whaling Section of Japan]
* [http://www.icrwhale.org/eng-index.htm The Institute of Cetacean Research]
* [http://www.iwcoffice.org/ The International Whaling Commission]
** [http://www.iwcoffice.org/commission/convention.htm International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling]
** [http://www.iwcoffice.org/_documents/table_permit.htm Catches table]

Organisations
* [http://www.greenpeace.or.jp/index_en_html Greenpeace Japan]
* [http://www.whaling.jp/english/ Japan Whaling Association]
* [http://www.seashepherd.org/whales/ Sea Shepherd Conservation Society]
* [http://luna.pos.to/whale/ Whaling Library]

Reportage
* [http://abc.net.au/catalyst/stories/s1657789.htm Catalyst: Whale Science] . From the ABC1 "Catalyst".

Multimedia
* [http://jimaku.in/w/W8hJTrSG7sg/VjQG__0TZZU People profiting from the issue of whaling]
* [http://tvnz.co.nz/view/video_popup_windows_skin/970154?bandwidth=128k Video footage of whale being harpooned]