Crucifixion eclipse

The phrase "Crucifixion eclipse" refers to a three-hour period of daytime darkness that was reported by the synoptic gospels of the Christian Bible to have occurred during the Crucifixion of Jesus. It is referred to as an eclipse, although according to science, such natural phenomena cannot reproduce the specific conditions described in the gospels and related accounts, most notably the occurrence of a solar eclipse during the full moon.

Biblical descriptions

According to the Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark and Luke), a period of darkness was associated with Jesus' crucifixion, which took place on the first day of Passover. The crucifixion narrative of the Gospel of John does not mention this and places the day of crucifixion on Nisan 14, the day of preparation for the Passover (see also Quartodeciman). All three Synoptic Gospels reported the darkness began around noon ("the sixth hour") and continued until 3 o'clock ("the ninth hour"):

Biblical prophecies

A prophecy in the Book of Amos predicts an earthquake during which the sun will set at midday:

), and archaeological evidence confirms it took place. [Marc Zvi Brettler, "How to Read the Bible", (Jewish Publication Society, 2005), page 158.]

The reference to darkness during daylight has been interpreted by some as a prophecy of the crucifixion darkness:Lockyer, H. (1971, December). "All of the Miracles of the Bible" (p. 243) [Eleventh Printing] Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House. LCCCN 61-16752] [Rudman, D. (2003). The crucifixion as chaoskampf: A new reading of the passion narrative in the synoptic gospels. "Biblica", 84, 102-107. [http://www.bsw.org/project/biblica/bibl84/Ani02.html] ]

Non-biblical accounts

Tertiary documents

The 3rd-century Christian historian Sextus Julius Africanus, in a section of his work surviving in quotation by George Syncellus, stated that the chronicler Thallus had called the darkness during the crucifixion a solar eclipse. [George Syncellus, "Chronography" [http://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/syncellus/#E1 391] .] Africanus objected based on the fact that a solar eclipse could not occur during Passover; the earth was between the sun and the moon during that holiday. It is unclear whether Thallus himself made any reference to the crucifixion. [Loveday Alexander, 'The Four among pagans' in Bockmuehl and Hagner, eds, "The Written Gospel", (Cambridge University Press, 2005), page 225.]

The church historian Eusebius of Caesarea (264 – 340), in his "Chronicle", cited a statement of the 2nd-century chronicler Phlegon of Tralles that during the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad (AD 32/33) "a great eclipse of the sun occurred at the sixth hour that excelled every other before it, turning the day into such darkness of night that the stars could be seen in heaven, and the earth moved in Bithynia, toppling many buildings in the city of Nicaea". ["Chronicle", Olympiad 202, trans. Carrier (1999).] In the same passage, Eusebius cited another unnamed Greek source also recording earthquakes in the same locations and an eclipse. Eusebius argued the two records had documented events that were simultaneous with the crucifixion of Jesus.

Tertullian, in his "Apologeticus", tells the story of the darkness that had commenced at noon during the crucifixion; those who were unaware of the prediction, he says, "no doubt thought it an eclipse". [ [http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-05.htm#P344_139064 Tertullian, Apologeticus, Chapter 21, 19] cited in Bouw, G. D. (1998, Spring). The darkness during the crucifixion. "The Biblical Astronomer", 8(84). Retrieved November 30, 2006 from [http://www.geocentricity.com/ba1/no84/crucifixn.html] .] He suggests that the evidence is still available: "You yourselves have the account of the world-portent still in your archives." [ [http://www.tertullian.org/anf/anf03/anf03-05.htm#P344_139064 Tertullian, Apologeticus, Chapter 21, 19] ]

New Testament Apocrypha

The divisions in the apocryphal "Gospel of Nicodemus", known as the Acts of Pilate, Christ’s Descent into Hell, and The Paradosis, refer to a variety of physical phenomena accompanying the crucifixion and the subsequent executive responses by Caesar. According to Chapter XI of the Acts of Pilate, the darkness had started at midday; lasted three hours, and had been caused by the darkening of the Sun. [Acts of Pilate. In W. Barnston (Ed.) (1984). "The Other Bible" (pp. 368). New York: HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 0-06-250030-9.] It also stated Pilate and his wife were disturbed by a report of what had happened. The Judeans he had summoned said it was an ordinary solar eclipse. The Christ’s Descent into Hell described the many dead men who had arisen and had appeared to many in Jerusalem shortly after the resurrection of Christ. [Christ’s Descent into Hell. In W. Barnston (Ed.) (1984). "The Other Bible" (pp. 374). New York: HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 0-06-250030-9.] And, the Paradosis presented the interrogations in Rome by Caesar and his subsequent decree of severe punishment against both Pilate and the Judeans for causing the darkness and earthquake that had fallen upon the whole world. [The Paradosis. In W. Barnston (Ed.) (1984). "The Other Bible" (pp. 378-379). New York: HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 0-06-250030-9.]

The "Letter from Pontius Pilate to Tiberius" claimed the darkness had started at the sixth hour, covered the whole world and, during the subsequent evening, the full moon resembled blood for the entire night. [http://www.bsmvt.org/pilate.html] The "Gospel of Peter" contained another extra-biblical reference to the darkness, stating that the darkness began at midday, covered the whole of Judaea, and led people to go about with lamps believing it to be night. [" [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/gospelpeter-mrjames.html Gospel of Peter] " 5.15–19.]

Other apocryphal works contain briefer accounts of the crucifixion darkness. The "Gospel of Bartholomew" stated darkness had accompanied the crucifixion of Christ. [Gospel of Bartholomew. In W. Barnston (Ed.) (1984). "The Other Bible" (p. 351). New York: HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 0-06-250030-9.] The division of "The Acts of John" known as the Revelation of the Mystery of the Cross stated the darkness had started at the sixth hour and had covered the whole world. [Revelation of the Mystery of the Cross. In W. Barnston (Ed.) (1984). "The Other Bible" (p. 419). New York: HarperCollins Publishers ISBN 0-06-250030-9.]

In a letter written under the name Dionysius the Areopagite (see Pseudo-Dionysius), the author claims to have observed a solar eclipse from Heliopolis, Egypt at the time of the crucifixion. [Pseudo-Dionysius, "Letter" [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/dionysius/works.ii.iv.ii.vii.html 7] .] The "Archko Volume", a 19th-century forgery purporting to be a collection of ancient documents concerning Jesus, contains a report by Pontius Pilate about the crucifixion events.

Historicity

Some writers contend that the account in the synoptic gospels is mythical and does not correspond to any historical event. During the nineteenth century, Kersey Graves argued the biblical account was “too incredible and too ludicrous to merit serious notice.” [Graves, K. (2007). "The World’s Sixteen Crucified Saviors" (pp. 113-115). Sioux Falls, South Dakota: NuVision Publications, LLC. ISBN 1-59547-780-2 {Original work published 1875}.] His arguments stemmed from Gibbon’s comments on the silence of Seneca and Pliny about the crucifixion darkness. Burton Mack suggests the story was an invention originated by the author of the Gospel of Mark. [cite book |first=Burton L. |last=Mack |title=A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian origins |publisher=Fortress Press |year=1988 |isbn=0800625498 |pages=296 |quote=This is the earliest account there is about the crucifixion of Jesus. It is a Markan fabrication |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fNSbW8hWRzwC&pg=PA296&vq=%22markan+fabrication%22&dq=darkness+crucifixion+myth&as_brr=3&sig=91wedXZa05AyWJBh1UHPTlHR4xE] The unusually long length of time the eclipse is supposed to have lasted has been used an argument against its historicity, as has the lack of mention of the darkness in secular accounts and the Gospel of John. [Carrier (1999).]

Use of the eclipse to date the crucifixion

Research to determine the exact date of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ by means of solar eclipses, has yielded inconclusive results.Humphreys, C. J., & W. G. Waddington, W. G. (1983, December 22). Dating the crucifixion. "Nature", 306(5945), 743-746.] Astronomical determinations of the date of the crucifixion have been derived from calculating the dates when the crescent of the new moon would be first visible from Jerusalem, which was used by the Jews to mark the first day of a lunar month, for example Nisan 1. Popular estimates have been April 7, 30 AD, April 3, 33 AD, and April 23, 34 AD.Schaefer, B. E. (1990). Lunar visibility and the crucifixion. "Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society", 31, 53-67.] [Pratt, J. P. (1991). Newton's date for the crucifixion [correspondence] . "Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society", 32, 301-304.]

Extra-biblical records have been incorporated with the determinations of the year of the crucifixion. Eusebius connected the solar darkening with the 18th year of Tiberius’ reign and the earthquakes to the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Since Tiberius Claudius Nero (42 BC – 37 AD) ascended the throne in 14 AD, the 18th year of his reign would have occurred in 32 AD(31 AD inclusive). Also, the darkening recorded by Phlegon yielded 32 AD. The fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad is 32 AD because the first Olympiad occurred in 776 BC. The Olympics had been conducted every four years after 796 BC until 394 AD.

Africanus had connected the date of the crucifixion with the fulfillment of one of Daniel’s prophecies. Those predictions indicated the number of years, in groups of sevens, that would transpire between the command to rebuild Jerusalem and the Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem (Palm Sunday) of Jesus Christ. Sir Robert Anderson determined 32 AD as the year of the crucifixion of Jesus Christ from an examination of that prophecy. His calculation used March 14, 445 BC as the date of the decree by Artaxerxes Longimus to rebuild Jerusalem (see also Second Temple). It served as the start date for the fulfillment of Daniel 9:24-27. [Anderson, R. (1895). Chapter VIII – Messiah the prince. In The Coming Prince. London, England: Hodder & Stoughton. Available at Philogos Religious Online Books, retrieved on April 19, 2007 [http://philologos.org/__eb-tcp/chap08.htm] .] His work received concurrences. [McClain, A. J. (1969). "Daniel’s Prophecy of the 70 Weeks" (pp. 17-27). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan Publishing House.] [Missler, C. (1999). "Cosmic Codes" (pp. 17-27). Coeur d’Alene, Idaho: Koinonia House. ISBN 1-57821-093-3.] . Their works yielded April 6, 32 AD as the date of the Triumphal Entry.

Crucifixion eclipse models

Total solar eclipse

Records of solar blackouts exceeding a half hour have been attributed to total solar eclipses. For example, the T’ang Dynasty [http://eclipse99.nasa.gov/pages/traditions_morechina.htm] and Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’s accounts of the hour long solar darkness of 879 AD were attributed to the total solar eclipse of October 29, 878 AD. [http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/quotes2.html] Attempts to attribute the crucifixion darkness to a solar eclipse have been unsuccessful. Several astrophysical features contradict the recorded characteristics of the solar blackout.

As mentioned above, solar eclipse could not have occurred on or near 14th of Nisan, because solar eclipses only occur during the new moon phase, and 14th of Nisan always corresponds to a full moon.

Solar eclipses are too brief to account for the crucifixion darkness. The length of the crucifixion darkness described by biblical and extra-biblical sources was more than a full order of magnitude for the totality of solar eclipses. Seven minutes and thirty-one seconds has been the established maximum limit of solar eclipse totality. [Lewis, I. M. (1931). The maximum duration of a total solar eclipse. "Publication of the American Astronomical Society", 6, 265. Paper was presented August 1929 at the Forty-second Meeting of the American Astronomical Society, Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, Canada.] The maximum duration of the total eclipse of November 3, 31 AD, was only one minute and four seconds. The maximum duration of the total eclipse of March 19, 33 AD, was only four minutes six seconds. Neither one had paths of totality passing near Jerusalem. Eclipses lasting at least six minutes, that were close to the crucifixion year, occurred on July 22, 27 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty-one seconds and on August 1, 45 AD, for a maximum duration of six minutes and thirty seconds. [cite web |title=Five Millennium Catalog of Solar Eclipses |publisher=NASA |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEcat5/SE0001-0100.html |accessdate=2007-09-28]

Mark Kidger, Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, Tenerife, Spain, compared the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter passage with historical eclipses.Kidger, M. (1999). "The Star of Bethlehem: An astronomer’s View" (pp. 68-72). Princeton, N. J: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-05823-7.] He indicated the total eclipse of November 24, 29 AD had the greatest geographical proximity to the site of the crucifixion. He determined its path of totality had passed slightly north of Jerusalem at 11:05 AM (see the NASA diagram of the path of totality for that eclipse [http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhistory/SE0029Nov24T.3.gif] ). Kidger indicated the maximum level of darkness at totality was just 95% for the eclipsed over Jerusalem. His research indicated that level of darkness would have been unnoticeable for people outdoors. His calculations indicated the eclipse had been total in Nazareth and Galilee for one minute and forty-nine seconds. Kidger concluded the population in Jerusalem lacked the necessity and the time to light their lamps for that total solar eclipse. Their behavior, as recorded in the Apocryphal Gospel of Peter, had been caused by a considerably longer period of darkness.

Lunar eclipse

Some speculation had been put forth to explain the crucifixion eclipse in terms of heavy cloud cover. Humphreys and Waddington suggested a meteorological darkening followed by a lunar eclipse could have been interpreted as fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy. Subsequently, they set the date of the crucifixion to be April 3, 33 AD. Schaefer’s calculations indicated that lunar eclipse could not have been seen from Jerusalem. Gaskel had argued a lunar eclipse during the day of the crucifixion could have received significant attention. [Gaskel, C. M. (1993, December). Beyond visibility: The "Crucifixion eclipse" in the context of some other astronomical events of the times. "Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society", 25, 1334. 183rd AAS Meeting [Abstract 27.04] .]

Similar accounts of darkness

Medieval accounts of large solar eclipses often described them as having very long duration, such as the one seen at Reichersberg in 1241, which was said to have lasted four hours; modern estimates suggest the period of total darkness lasted around 3 minutes and 30 seconds. [Stephenson, F. R. (1997), "Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation", (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), page 402, ISBN 0521461944; John F. A. Sawyer, "Joshua 10:12-14 and the solar eclipse of 30 September 1131 B.C.", "Palestine Exploration Quarterly" 1972, page 145.] A solar eclipse took place on 3 June, 1239, visible from many parts of Europe. This was documented in Coimbra, Portugal; Toledo, Spain; Montpellier, France; Marola, Florence, Siena, Arezzo, and Cesena, Italy; and Split, Croatia. Accounts of the duration vary considerably, from Cesena (one hour), to Coimbra (three hours) and Florence ('several hours'). [Stephenson, F. R. (1997), "Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation", (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), page 397-404.] However, an astronomer of the period, Restoro d'Arezzo, wrote an eyewitness report, which has been described as "the earliest known which gives a meaningful estimate of the duration of totality": [Stephenson, F. R. (1997), "Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation", (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), page 398.] He described seeing the Sun "entirely covered for the space of time in which a man could walk fully 250 paces," consistent with the modern estimate of 5 minutes and 45 seconds. [Restoro d'Arezzo, "Delle composizione del mondo" (1282) Book 1, Chapter 16, cited in Stephenson, F. R. (1997), "Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation", (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), page 398; see also John F. A. Sawyer, "Joshua 10:12-14 and the solar eclipse of 30 September 1131 B.C.", "Palestine Exploration Quarterly" 1972, page 145, who estimates the duration of totality at 5 minutes 50 seconds.] Although total darkness in an eclipse never lasts more than a few minutes, it has frequently been recorded that observers perceive it as having lasted as much as two or three hours. [John F. A. Sawyer, "Joshua 10:12-14 and the solar eclipse of 30 September 1131 B.C.", "Palestine Exploration Quarterly" 1972, page 139: Stephenson, F. R. (1997), "Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation", (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), page 385.] The astronomer F. R. Stephenson suggests that the long durations described in medieval, European accounts may have been influenced by the Passion narrative in the Synoptic Gospels; several texts closely resemble the wording of the Vulgate (Latin) gospel account. [Stephenson, F. R. (1997), "Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation", (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997), page 385.]

Notes

Further reading

*Brewer, B. (1991). "Eclipse" (Second Edition). Seattle, Washington: Earth View. ISBN 0-932989-91-2.
*Carrier, R. (1999). Thallus: an analysis (1999). Retrieved May 24, 2002 [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/richard_carrier/thallus.html] .
*DeLashmutt, G. (2005). Chapter 19 (Matthew 27:45-54) The events accompanying Jesus’ crucifixion. In Teaching outlines of the gospel of John. Xenos Christian Fellowship. Retrieved on March 10, 2005 [http://www.xenos.org/teachings/nt/john/gary/john19-2.htm] .
*James, M. R., (Trans.). (1924). The gospel of Nicodemus, or acts of Pilate. In "The apocryphal New Testament". Oxford: Clarendon Press. Retrieved May 28, 2002 from the Wesley Center for Applied Theology Noncanonical Homepage [http://wesley.nnu.edu/noncanon/gospels.htm] .
*Lohmann, K. J., Hester, J. T., & Lohmann, C. M. F., (1999). "Ethology Ecology & Evolution", 11, 1-23.
*Stewart, D. (n.d.). "What Everyone Needs to Know About the Bible". Orange, CA: Dart Press. Retrieved May 28, 2002 from the Blue Letter Bible web site [http://blueletterbible.org/faq/canon.html] .
*Thiede, C. P., & d'Ancona, M. (1996). "The Jesus Papyrus" (pp. 59-64, 101-127, 135-137). New York: Doubleday, a division of Random House, Inc. ISBN 0-385-48898-x.

See also

*Christian eschatology
*Computus
*Good Friday
*International Heliophysical year
*Palm Sunday
*Solar eclipse
*Triumphal entry