- Italian Renaissance painting
Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period from the early 15th to mid 16th centuries occurring within the area of present-day Italy, but at that time divided into many political areas. The painters of Renaissance Italy, although often attached to particular courts and with loyalties to particular towns, nonetheless wandered the length and breadth of Italy, often occupying a diplomatic status and disseminating both artistic and philosophical ideas. [eg. Antonello da Messina who travelled from Sicily to Venice via Naples.]
The city that is renowned as the birthplace of the Renaissance and in particular, Renaissance painting, is
Florence . A detailed background is given in the companion articlesRenaissance andRenaissance architecture .Renaissance painting can be divided into four periods:
* Proto-Renaissance, 1290–1400.
* Early Renaissance, 1400–1475.
* High Renaissance, 1475–1525.
*Mannerism , 1525–1600.The Proto-Renaissance begins with the professional life of the painter
Giotto and includesTaddeo Gaddi ,Orcagna andAltichiero . The Early Renaissance was marked by the work ofMasaccio ,Fra Angelico ,Uccello ,Piero della Francesca andVerrocchio . The High Renaissance period was that ofLeonardo da Vinci ,Michelangelo andRaphael . The Mannerist period includedAndrea del Sarto ,Pontormo andTintoretto . Mannerism is dealt with in a separate article.Influences
The influences upon the development of Renaissance painting in Italy are those that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government and other aspects of society. The following list presents a summary, dealt with more fully in the main articles that are cited above.
* Classical texts, lost to European scholars for centuries, became available. These included Philosophy, Poetry, Drama, Science, a thesis on the Arts and Early Christian Theology.
* Simultaneously, Europe gained access to advanced mathematics which had its provenance in the works of Islamic scholars.
* The advent of printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be disseminated easily, and an increasing number of books were written for a broad public.
* The establishment of theMedici Bank and the subsequent trade it generated brought unprecedented wealth to a single Italian city,Florence .
* Cosimo de' Medici set a new standard for patronage of the arts, not associated with the church or monarchy.
* Humanist philosophy meant that man's relationship with humanity, the universe and with God was no longer the exclusive province of the Church.
* A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman remains by the architectBrunelleschi and sculptorDonatello . The revival of a style of architecture based on classical precedents inspired a corresponding classicism in painting, which manifested itself as early as the 1420s in the paintings ofMasaccio andUccello .
* The development ofoil paint and its introduction to Italy had lasting effects.
* The serendipitous presence within the region ofFlorence of certain individuals of artistic genius, most notablyGiotto ,Masaccio ,Brunelleschi ,Piero della Francesca ,Leonardo da Vinci andMichelangelo , formed an ethos which supported and encouraged many lesser artists to achieve work of extraordinary quality.Frederick Hartt, "A History of Italian Renaissance Art", (1970)]
* A similar heritage of artistic achievement occurred inVenice through the talentedBellini family, their influential inlawMantegna ,Giorgione ,Titian andTintoretto .Michael Baxandall, "Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy", (1974)] [Margaret Aston, "The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe", (1979)]Themes
:"See also":
Italian Renaissance painting, development of themes Much painting of the Renaissance period was commissioned by or for the Catholic Church. These works were often of large scale and were frequently cycles painted infresco of "the Life of Christ", the "Life of the Virgin " or the life of a saint, particularlySt. Francis of Assisi . There were also many allegorical paintings on the theme ofSalvation and the role of the Church in attaining it. Churches also commissionedaltarpiece s which were painted intempera on panel and later in oil oncanvas . Apart from large altarpieces, small devotional pictures were produced in very large numbers, both for churches and for private individuals, the most common theme being the "Madonna and Child".Throughout the period, civic commissions were also important, local government buildings like the
Palazzo Pubblico inSiena being decorated with frescoes and other works both secular, such as "the Allegory of Good Government", and religious, such asSimone Martini 's fresco of the "Maèsta".Portraiture was uncommon in the 14th and early 15th century, being mostly limited to civic commemorative pictures such as the equestrian portraits of
Guidoriccio da Fogliano bySimone Martini , 1327, in Siena and, of the early 15th century,John Hawkwood byUccello inFlorence Cathedral and its companion portrayingNiccolò da Tolentino byAndrea del Castagno .During the 15th century portraiture became common, initially often formalised profile portraits but increasingly three-quarter face, bust-length portraits. Patrons of art works such as altarpieces and fresco cycles often were included in the scenes, a notable example being the inclusion of the Sassetti and
Medici families inGhirlandaio 's cycle in theSassetti Chapel . Portraiture was to become a major subject for High Renaissance painters such asRaphael andTitian and continue into the Mannerist period in works of artists such asBronzino .With the growth of Humanism, artists turned to Classical themes, particularly to fulfil commissions for the decoration of the homes of wealthy patrons, the best known being
Botticelli 's "Birth of Venus "for the Medici. Increasingly, Classical themes were also seen as providing suitable allegorical material for civic commissions. Humanism also influenced the manner in which religious themes were depicted, notably onMichelangelo 's "Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel".Other motifs were drawn from contemporary life, sometimes with allegorical meaning, some sometimes purely decorative. Incidents important to a particular family might be recorded like those in the "Camera degli Sposi" that
Mantegna painted for the Gonzaga family atMantua . Increasingly, still lifes and decorative scenes from life were painted, such as "the Concert" byLorenzo Costa of about 1490.Important events were often recorded or commemorated in paintings such as Uccello's "
Battle of San Romano ", as were important local religious festivals. History and historic characters were often depicted in a way that reflected on current events or on the lives of current people. Portraits were often painted of contemporaries in the guise of an historic character or a character from literature. The writings ofDante , Voragine's "Golden Legend " andBoccaccio 's Decameron were important sources of themes.In all these subjects, increasingly, and in the works of almost all painters, certain underlying painterly practices were being developed: the observation of nature, the study of anatomy, the study of light and the study of perspective. [Keith Christiansen, "Italian Painting", (1992)]
Proto-Renaissance painting
Traditions of 13th century Tuscan painting
The art of the region of Tuscany in the late 13th century was dominated by two masters of the Byzantine style,
Cimabue ofFlorence andDuccio ofSiena . Their commissions were mostly religious paintings, several of them being very large altarpieces showing the Madonna and Child. These two painters, with their contemporaries,Guido of Siena ,Coppo di Marcovaldo and the mysterious painter upon whose style the school may have originated, the so-calledMaster of St. Bernardino , all worked in a manner that was highly formalised and dependent upon the ancient tradition of icon painting. [John White, "Duccio", (1979)] In thesetempera paintings many of the details were rigidly fixed by the subject matter, the precise position of the hands of the Madonna and Christ Child, for example, being dictated by the nature of the blessing that the painting invoked upon the viewer. The angle of the Virgin's head and shoulders, the folds in her veil, and the lines with which her features were defined had all been repeated in countless such paintings. Cimabue and Duccio both took steps in the direction of greater naturalism, as did their contemporary,Pietro Cavallini of Rome.Giotto
Giotto , (1266–1337) was a shepherd boy from the hills north of Florence who became Cimabue's apprentice and emerged as the most outstanding painter of his time.Giorgio Vasari, "Lives of the Artists ", (1568)] Giotto, possibly influenced byPietro Cavallini and other Roman painters, did not base the figures that he painted upon any painterly tradition, but upon the observation of life. Unlike those of his Byzantine contemporaries, Giotto's figures are solidly three-dimensional; they stand squarely on the ground, have discernible anatomy and are clothed in garments with weight and structure. But more than anything, what set Giotto's figures apart from those of his contemporaries are their emotions. In the faces of Giotto's figures are joy, rage, despair, shame, spite and love. The cycle offresco es of "the Life of Christ" and "the Life of the Virgin" that he painted in theScrovegni Chapel inPadua set a new standard for narrative pictures. His "Ognissanti Madonna" hangs in theUffizi Gallery , Florence, in the same room as Cimabue's "Santa Trinita Madonna" and Duccio's "Ruccellai Madonna" where the stylistic comparisons between the three can easily be made. [All three are reproduced and compared atItalian Renaissance painting, development of themes ] One of the features apparent in Giotto's work is his observation of naturalistic perspective. He is regarded as the herald of the Renaissance.Sarel Eimerl, The World of Giotto, (1967)]Giotto's contemporaries
Giotto had a number of contemporaries who were either trained and influenced by him, or whose observation of nature had led them in a similar direction. Although several of Giotto's pupils assimilated the direction that his work had taken, none were to become as successful as he.
Taddeo Gaddi achieved the first large painting of a night scene in an "Annunciation to the Shepherds" in the Baroncelli Chapel of the Church of Santa Croce, Florence.The paintings in the "Upper Church" of the
Basilica of St. Francis, Assisi , are examples of naturalistic painting of the period, often ascribed to Giotto himself, but more probably the work of artists surroundingPietro Cavallini . A late painting byCimabue in the "Lower Church" at Assisi, of the "Madonna and St. Francis", also clearly shows greater naturalism than his panel paintings and the remains of his earlier frescoes in the upper church.Mortality and redemption
A common theme in the decoration of Medieval churches was the "
Last Judgement ", which frequently occupies a sculptural space above the west door, or, as in the case of the Giotto'sScrovegni Chapel , is painted on the inner west wall. TheBlack Death of 1348 caused its survivors to focus on the need to approach death in a state of penitence and absolution. The inevitability of death, the rewards for the penitent and the penalties of sin were emphasised in a number of frescoes, remarkable for their grim depictions of suffering and their surreal images of the torments ofHell .These include the "Triumph of Death" by Giotto's pupil
Orcagna , now in a fragmentary state at the Museum of Santa Croce, and the "Triumph of Death" in the Camposanto atPisa by an unknown painter, perhapsFrancesco Traini orBuffalmacco who worked on the other three of a series of frescoes on the subject of Salvation. It is unknown exactly when these frescoes were begun but it is generally presumed they post-date 1348.Two important fresco painters were active in
Padua in the late 14th century,Altichiero andGiusto de' Menabuoi . Giusto's masterpiece, the decoration of the Cathedral's Baptistery, follows the theme of humanity's Creation, Downfall and Salvation, also having a rareApocalypse cycle in the small chancel. While the whole work is exceptional for its breadth, quality and intact state, the treatment of human emotion is conservative by comparison with that ofAltichiero 's crucifixion at theBasilica of Sant'Antonio , also inPadua , relying on formalised gestures, where Altichiero relates the incidents surrounding Christ's death with great human drama and intensity. [Mgr. Giovanni Foffani, "Frescoes by Giusto de' Menabuoi", (1988)]In Florence, at the "Spanish Chapel" of Santa Maria Novella, Andrea Bonaiuti was commissioned to emphasise the role of the Church in the redemptive process, and that of the
Dominican Order in particular. His fresco "Allegory of the Active and Triumphant Church" is remarkable for its depiction ofFlorence Cathedral , complete with the dome which was not built until the following century.International Gothic
During the later 14th century,
International Gothic was the style that dominated Tuscan painting. It can be seen to an extent in the work of Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti which is marked by a formalized sweetness and grace in the figures, and Late Gothic gracefulness in the draperies. The style is fully developed in the works ofSimone Martini andGentile da Fabriano which have an elegance and a richness of detail, and an idealised quality not compatible with the starker realities of Giotto's paintings.In the early 15th century, bridging the gap between International Gothic and the Renaissance are the paintings of
Fra Angelico , many of which, being altarpieces in tempera, show the Gothic love of elaboration, gold leaf and brilliant colour. It is in his frescoes at hisconvent of Sant' Marco that Fra Angelico shows himself the artistic disciple ofGiotto . These devotional paintings, which adorn the cells and corridors inhabited by the friars, represent episodes from the life ofJesus , many of them being scenes of "the Crucifixion ". They are starkly simple, restrained in colour and intense in mood as the artist sought to make spiritual revelations a visual reality. [Helen Gardner, "Art through the Ages", (1970)]Early Renaissance painting
Florence, 1401
The earliest truly Renaissance images in Florence date from the first year of the century known in Italian as "Quattrocento", synonymous with the Early Renaissance. At that date a competition was held to find an artist to create a pair of bronze doors for the Baptistry of St. John, the oldest remaining church in the city. The Baptistry was a large octagonal building in the Romanesque style, whose origins had been forgotten and which was popularly believed to date from Roman times. The interior of its dome was decorated with an enormous mosaic figure of Christ in Majesty thought to have been designed by
Coppo di Marcovaldo . It had three large portals, the central ones being filled by a set of doors created by Andrea Pisano eighty years earlier.Pisano's doors were divided into 28 quatrofoil compartments, containing narratives scenes from the "Life of John the Baptist". The competitors, of which there were seven young artists, were each to design a bronze panel of similar shape and size, representing "the Sacrifice of Isaac".
Two of the panels have survived, that by
Lorenzo Ghiberti and that byBrunelleschi . Each panel shows some strongly classicising motifs indicating the direction that art and philosophy were moving, at that time. Ghiberti has used the naked figure of Isaac to create a small sculpture in the Classical style. He kneels on a tomb decorated with acanthus scrolls that are also a reference to the art of Ancient Rome. In Brunelleschi's panel, one of the additional figures included in the scene is reminiscent of a well-known Roman bronze figure of a boy pulling a thorn from his foot. Brunelleschi's creation is challenging in its dynamic intensity. Less elegant than Ghiberti's, it is more about human drama and impending tragedy.R.E. Wolf and R. Millen, "Renaissance and Mannerist Art", (1968)]Ghiberti won the competition. His first set of
Baptistry doors took 27 years to complete, after which he was commissioned to make another. In the total of 50 years that Ghiberti worked on them, the doors provided a training ground for many of the artists of Florence. Being narrative in subject and employing not only skill in arranging figurative compositions but also the burgeoning skill oflinear perspective , the doors were to have an enormous influence on the development of Florentine pictorial art. They were a unifying factor, a source of pride and camaraderie for both the city and its artists. Michelangelo was to call them "the Gates of Paradise".The Brancacci Chapel
In 1426 two artists commenced painting a fresco cycle of "the Life of St. Peter" in the chapel of the Brancacci family, at the Carmelite Church in Florence. They both were called by the name of Tommaso and were nicknamed
Masaccio andMasolino , Big Tom and Little Tom.More than any other artist, Masaccio recognised the implications in the work of Giotto. He carried forward the practice of painting from nature. His paintings demonstrate an understanding of anatomy, of foreshortening, of linear perspective, of light and the study of drapery. Among his works, the figures of "
Adam and Eve being expelled from Eden", painted on the side of the arch into the chapel, are renowned for their realistic depiction of the human form and of human emotion. They contrast with the gentle and pretty figures painted by Masolino on the opposite side of "Adam and Eve receiving the forbidden fruit". The painting of theBrancacci Chapel was left incomplete when Masaccio died at 26. The work was later finished byFilippino Lippi . Masaccio's work was to be a source of inspiration to many later painters, including bothLeonardo da Vinci andMichelangelo .Ornella Casazza, "Masaccio and the Brancacci Chapel", ((1990)]The development of linear perspective
During the first half of the 15th century, the achieving of the effect of realistic space in a painting by the employment of
linear perspective was a major preoccupation of many painters, as well as the architectsBrunelleschi andAlberti who both theorised about the subject. Brunelleschi is known to have done a number of careful studies of the piazza and octagonal baptistery outsideFlorence Cathedral and it is thought he aided Masaccio in the creation of his famoustrompe l'oeil niche around the Holy Trinity he painted atSanta Maria Novella .According to Vasari,
Paolo Uccello was so obsessed with perspective that he thought of little else and experimented with it in many paintings, the best known being the threeBattle of San Romano pictures which use broken weapons on the ground, and fields on the distant hills to give an impression of perspective.In the 1450s
Piero della Francesca , in paintings such as "The Flagellation of Christ", demonstrated his mastery over linear perspective and also over the science of light. Another painting exists, a cityscape, by an unknown artist, perhaps Piero della Francesca, that demonstrates the sort of experiment that Brunelleschi had been making. From this time linear perspective was understood and regularly employed, notably byPerugino in his "Christ Giving the Keys to St. Peter" in theSistine Chapel .The understanding of light
Giotto used tonality to create form.Taddeo Gaddi in his nocturnal scene in the Baroncelli Chapel demonstrated how light could be used to create drama.Paolo Uccello , a hundred years later, experimented with the dramatic effect of light in some of his almost-monochrome frescoes. He did a number of these in "terra verde" or "green earth", enlivening his compositions with touches of vermilion. The best known is his equestrian portrait ofJohn Hawkwood on the wall ofFlorence Cathedral . Both here and on the four heads of prophets that he painted around the inner clockface in the cathedral, he used strongly contrasting tones, suggesting that each figure was being lit by a natural light source, as if the source was an actual window in the cathedral. [Annarita Paolieri, "Paolo Uccello, Domenico Veneziano, Andrea del Castagno", (1991)]Piero della Francesca carried his study of light further. In the "Flagellation" he demonstrates a knowledge of how light is proportionally disseminated from its point of origin. There are two sources of light in this painting, one internal to a building and the other external. Of the internal source, though the light itself is invisible, its position can be calculated with mathematical certainty. Leonardo da Vinci was to carry forward Piero's work on light. [Peter Murray and Pier Luigi Vecchi, Piero della Francesca, (1967)]The Madonna
The
Blessed Virgin Mary , revered by the Catholic Church worldwide, was particularly evoked in Florence, where there was a miraculous image of her on a column in the corn market and where both the Cathedral of "Our Lady of the Flowers" and the large Dominican church ofSanta Maria Novella were named in her honour.The miraculous image in the corn market was sadly destroyed by fire, but replaced with a new image in the 1330s by
Bernardo Daddi , set in an elaborately designed and lavishly wrought canopy byOrcagna . The open lower storey of the building was enclosed and dedicated asOrsanmichele .Depictions of the
Madonna and Child were a very popular art form in Florence. They took every shape from small mass-produced terracotta plaques to magnificent altarpieces such as those byCimabue ,Giotto andMasaccio .In the 15th and first half of the 16th centuries, one workshop more than any other dominated the production of Madonnas. They were the della Robbia family, and they were not painters but modellers in clay.
Luca della Robbia , famous for his "cantoria gallery" at the cathedral, was the first sculptor to use glazed terracotta for large sculptures. Many of the durable works of this family have survived. The skill of the della Robbias, particularlyAndrea della Robbia , was to give great naturalism to the babies that they modelled asJesus , and expressions of great piety and sweetness to the Madonna. They were to set a standard to be emulated by other artists of Florence.Among those who painted devotional Madonnas during the Early Renaissance are
Fra Angelico ,Fra Filippo Lippi ,Verrocchio andDavide Ghirlandaio . The custom was continued byBotticelli who produced a series of Madonnas over a period of twenty years for theMedici ;Perugino , whose Madonnas and saints are known for their sweetness andLeonardo da Vinci , for whom a number of small attributed Madonnas such as the "Benois Madonna " have survived. EvenMichelangelo who was primarily a sculptor, was persuaded to paint the "Doni Tondo ", while forRaphael , they are among his most popular and numerous works.Early Renaissance painting in other parts of Italy
Andrea Mantegna in Mantua
One of the most influential painters of northern Italy was
Andrea Mantegna ofPadua , who had the good fortune to be in his teen years at the time in which the great Florentine sculptorDonatello was working there. Donatello created the enormous equestrian bronze, the first since the Roman Empire, of the condotiero Gattemelata, still visible on its plinth in the square outside theBasilica of Sant'Antonio . He also worked on the high altar and created a series of bronze panels in which he achieved a remarkable illusion of depth, with perspective in the architectural settings and apparent roundness of the human form all in very shallow relief.At only 17 years old, Mantegna accepting his first commission, fresco cycles of the "Lives of Saints James and Christopher" for the
Eremitani Chapel , near theScrovegni Chapel in Padua. Unfortunately the building was mostly destroyed during World War II, and they are only known from photographs which reveal an already highly developed sense of perspective and a knowledge of antiquity, for which the ancient University of Padua had become well known, early in the 15th century.Diana Davies, Harrap's Illustrated Dictionary of Art and Artists, (1990)]Mantegna's most famous work is the interior decoration of the
Camera degli Sposi for theGonzaga family inMantua , dated about 1470. The walls are frescoed with scenes of the life of the Gonzaga family, talking, greeting a younger son and his tutor on their return from Rome, preparing for a hunt and other such scenes which make no obvious reference to matters historic, literary, philosophic or religious. They are remarkable for simply being about family life. The one concession is the scattering of jolly winged cherubs who hold up plaques and garlands and clamber on the illusionistic pierced balustrade that surrounds atrompe l'oeil view of the sky that decks the ceiling of the chamber.Cosmè Tura in Ferrara
While Mantegna was working for the Gonzagas in Mantua, a very different painter was being employed to design an even more ambitious scheme for the
Este family ofFerrara .Cosmè Tura 's painting is highly distinctive, both strangely Gothic yet Classicising at the same time. Tura poses Classical figures as if they were saints, surrounds them with luminous symbolic motifs of surreal perfection and clothes them in garments that appear to be crafted out of intricately folded and enamelled copper.Borso d'Este 's family had constructed a large banquetting hall and suite known as thePalazzo Schifanoia . [Schifanoia means "disgust of annoyances", or "Sans Souci", and indeed it lacks anything so commonplace as a kitchen so that all the food had to be transported.] Borso, according to Tura's personal records, employed him in 1470 to design the decorative scheme for the banquetting hall, to be executed byFrancesco del Cossa andErcole de' Roberti .The scheme is both symbolically complex and elaborate in execution. The overriding theme is the "Cycle of the Year" as represented by the signs of the zodiac accompanied by the mysterious "Deans" each ruling ten days of the month. Above them, seated in a spectacular array of chariots drawn by lions, eagles, unicorns and other such beasts, are twelve Roman deities with their various attributes. In the lower tiers, as in the "Camera degli Sposi", are shown the life of the family. For the month of March, for example, the figure of
Minerva , Goddess of Wisdom, is represented and in the panel beneath Borso d'Este is administering justice, while in the distance workers are pruning vines. Although areas of the frescoes are very badly damaged to the extent that the subject can no longer be identified, and although there are several different hands apparent in the works, there appears to be a consistency in the design of every remaining scene that shows the overriding eccentric style of Cosmè Tura. [Ranieri Varese, "Il Palazzo di Schifanoia", (1980)]Antonello da Messina
In 1442
Alfonso V of Aragon became ruler ofNaples , bringing with him a collection ofFlemish painting s and setting up a Humanist Academy. The painterAntonello da Messina seems to have had access to the King's collection, which may have included the works ofJan van Eyck . [Ilan Rachum, "The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia", (1979)] He seems to have been exposed to Flemish painting at a date earlier than the Florentines, to have quickly seen the potential of oils as a medium and then painted in nothing else. He carried the technique north to Venice with him, where it was soon adopted byGiovanni Bellini and became the favoured medium of the maritime republic where the art of fresco had never been a great success.Antonello da Messina painted mostly small meticulous portraits in glowing colours. But one of his most famous works also demonstrates his superior ability at handling linear perspective and light. This is the small painting of "St. Jerome in His Study", in which the composition is framed by a late Gothic arch, through which is viewed an interior, domestic on one side and ecclesiastic on the other, in the centre of which the saint sits in a wooden corral surrounded by his possessions while his lion prowls in the shadows on the tiled floor. The way that the light streams in through every door and window casting both natural light and reflected light across the architecture and all the objects would have excitedPiero della Francesca . His work influenced bothGentile Bellini , who did a series of paintings of "Miracles of Venice" for the Scuola di Santa Croce, and his more famous brother, Giovanni, one of the most significant painters of the High Renaissance in Northern Italy.High Renaissance
Patronage and Humanism
In Florence, in the latter 15th century, most works of art, even those that were done as decoration for churches, were generally commissioned and paid for by private patrons. Much of the patronage came from the Medici family, or those who were closely associated with or related to them, such as the Sassetti, the Ruccellai and the Tornabuoni.
In the 1460s Cosimo de' Medici the Elder had established
Marsilio Ficino as his resident Humanist philosopher, and facilitated his translation ofPlato and his teaching ofPlatonic philosophy , which focussed on humanity as the centre of the natural universe, on each person's personal relationship with God, and on fraternal or "platonic" love as being the closest that a person could get to emulating or understanding the love of God.Hugh Ross Williamson, "Lorenzo the Magnificent", (1974)]In the
Medieval period, everything related to the Classical period was perceived as associated with paganism. In the Renaissance it came increasingly to be associated with enlightenment. The figures ofClassical mythology began to take on a new symbolic role in Christian art and in particular, the GoddessVenus took on a new discretion. Born fully formed, by a sort of miracle, she was the new Eve, symbol of innocent love, or even, by extension, a symbol of theVirgin Mary herself. We see Venus in both these roles in the two famous tempera paintings thatBotticelli did in the 1480s for Cosimo's nephew, Pierfrancesco Medici, the "Primavera" and the "Birth of Venus". [Umberto Baldini, "Primavera", (1984)]Meanwhile,
Ghirlandaio , a meticulous and accurate draughtsman and one of the finest portrait painters of his age, executed two cycles of frescoes for Medici associates in two of Florence's larger churches, the "Sassetti Chapel " at Santa Trinita and the "Tornabuoni Chapel " atSanta Maria Novella . In these cycles of the "Life of St Francis" and the "Life of the Virgin Mary" and "Life of John the Baptist" there was room for portraits of patrons and of the patrons' patrons. Thanks to Sassetti's patronage, there is a portrait of the man himself, with his employer,Lorenzo il Magnifico , and Lorenzo's three sons with their tutor, the Humanist poet and philosopher,Agnolo Poliziano . In the Tornabuoni Chapel is another portrait of Poliziano, accompanied by the other influential members of the Platonic Academy including Marsilio Ficino.Netherlandish influence
From about 1450, with the arrival in Italy of the Flemish painter
Rogier van der Weyden and possibly earlier, artists were introduced to the medium ofoil paint . Whereas both tempera and fresco lent themselves to the depiction of pattern, neither presented a successful way to represent natural textures realistically. The highly flexibly medium of oils, which could be made opaque or transparent, and allowed alteration and additions for days after it had been laid down, opened a new world of possibility to Italian artists.In 1475 a huge altarpiece of "the Adoration of the Shepherds" arrived in Florence. Painted by
Hugo van der Goes at the behest of the Portinari family, it was shipped out from Bruges for their family chapel in the church of Sant' Egidio. The altarpiece glows with intense reds and greens, contrasting with the glossy black velvet robes of the Portinari donors. In the foreground is astill life of flowers in contrasting containers, one of glazed pottery and the other of glass. The glass vase alone was enough to excite attention. But the most influential aspect of the triptych was the extremely natural and lifelike quality of the three shepherds with stubbly beards, workworn hands and expressions ranging from adoration to wonder to incomprehension. The Florentine artist,Ghirlandaio , promptly painted his own version, with a beautiful Italian Madonna in place of the long-faced Flemish one, and himself, gesturing theatrically, as one of the shepherds.The Papal commission
In 1477
Pope Sixtus IV replaced the derelict old chapel at the Vatican in which many of the Papal services were held. The interior of the new chapel, named theSistine chapel in his honour, appears to have been planned from the start to have a series of 16 large frescoes between its pilasters on the middle level, with a series of painted portraits of popes above them.In 1479, a group of artists from Florence were commissioned with the work:
Botticelli ,Perugino ,Ghirlandaio andCosimo Rosselli . This fresco cycle was to depict "the Life of Moses" on one side of the chapel and "the Life of Christ" on the other with the frescoes complementing each other in theme. "The Nativity of Jesus" and the "Finding of Moses" were adjacent on the wall behind the altar, with analtarpiece of "the Assumption if the Virgin" by Perugino between them. The four paintings on the end walls were unfortunately destroyed. The remaining 12 pictures indicate the virtuosity that these artists had attained, and the obvious cooperation between individuals who normally employed very different styles and who had very different skills. The paintings gave full range to their capabilities as they included a great number of figures of men, women and children and characters ranging from guiding angels to enragedPharaoh s and the devil himself. Each painting required alandscape . Because of the scale of the figures that the artists agreed upon, in each picture, the landscape and sky take up the whole upper half of the scene. Sometimes, as inBotticelli 's scene of "the Purification of the Leper", there are additional small narratives taking place in the landscape, in this case "the Temptation of Christ".Of the paintings, one stands out. It is
Perugino 's scene of "Christ giving the Keys to St. Peter". This picture is remarkable for the clarity and simplicity of its composition, the beauty of the figurative painting, which includes a selfportrait among the onlookers, and especially the perspective cityscape which includes reference to Peter's ministry to Rome by the presence of twotriumphal arch es, and centrally placed an octagonal building which might be a Christianbaptistry or a RomanMausoleum .Massimo Giacometti, "The Sistine Chapel", (1986)]Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo, because of the scope of his interests and the extraordinary degree of talent that he demonstrated in so many diverse areas, is regarded as the archetypal "
Renaissance man ". But it was first and foremost as a painter that he was admired within his own time, and as a painter, he drew on the knowledge that he gained from all his other interests. Leonardo was a scientific observer. He learned by looking at things. He studied and drew the flowers of the fields, the eddies of the river, the form of the rocks and mountains, the way light reflected from foliage and sparkled in a jewel. In particular, he studied the human form, dissecting thirty or more unclaimedcadaver s from a hospital in order to understand muscles and sinews.More than any other artist, he advanced the study of "atmosphere". In his paintings such as the "
Mona Lisa " and "Virgin of the Rocks ", he used light and shade with such subtlety that, for want of a better word, it became known as Leonardo's "sfumato" or "smoke".Simultaneous to inviting the viewer into a mysterious world of shifting shadows, chaotic mountains and whirling torrents, Leonardo achieved a degree of realism in the expression of human emotion, prefigured by Giotto but unknown since Masaccio's "Adam and Eve". Leonardo's "Last Supper", painted in the refectory of a monastery in Milan, became the benchmark for religious narrative painting for the next half millennium. Many other Renaissance artists painted versions of "the Last Supper", but only Leonardo's was destined to to be reproduced countless times in wood, alabaster, plaster, lithograph, tapestry, crochet and table-carpets.
Apart from the direct impact of the works themselves, Leonardo's studies of light, anatomy, landscape, and human expression were disseminated in part through his generosity to a retinue of students.
Michelangelo
In 1508
Pope Julius II succeeded in getting the sculptorMichelangelo to agree to continue the decorative scheme of the Sistine Chapel. TheSistine Chapel ceiling was constructed in such a way that there were twelve sloping pendentives supporting the vault that formed ideal surfaces on which to paint theTwelve Apostles . Michelangelo, who had yielded to the Pope's demands with little grace, soon devised an entirely different scheme, far more complex both in design and in iconography. The scale of the work, which he executed single handed except for manual assistance, was titanic and took nearly five years to complete.The Pope's plan for the Apostles would thematically have formed a pictorial link between the
Old Testament andNew Testament narratives on the walls, and the popes in the gallery of portraits. It is thetwelve apostles , and their leader Peter as first Bishop of Rome, that make that bridge. But Michelangelo's scheme went the opposite direction. The theme of Michelangelo's ceiling is not God's grand plan for humanity's salvation. The theme is about humanity's disgrace. It is about why humanity needed, and in the terms of the faith, "needs" Jesus. [T.L.Taylor, "The Vision of Michelangelo",(1982)]Superficially, the ceiling is a Humanist construction. The figures are of superhuman dimension and, in the case of Adam, of such beauty that according to the biographer
Vasari , it really looks as if God himself had designed the figure, rather than Michelangelo. But despite the beauty of the individual figures, Michelangelo has not glorified the human state, and he certainly has not presented the Humanist ideal ofplatonic love . In fact, the ancestors of Christ, which he painted around the upper section of the wall, demonstrate all the worst aspects of family relationships, displaying disfunction in as many different forms as there are families.Vasari praised Michelangelo's seemingly infinite powers of invention in creating postures for the figures.
Raphael , who was given a preview byBramante after Michelangelo had downed his brush and stormed off to Bologna in a temper, painted at least two figures in imitation of Michelangelo's prophets, one at the church of Sant' Agostino and the other in the Vatican, his portrait of Michelangelo himself in "The School of Athens ". [Gabriel Bartz and Eberhard König, "Michelangelo", (1998)] [Ludwig Goldschieder, "Michelangelo", (1962)]Raphael
With
Leonardo da Vinci andMichelangelo ,Raphael 's name is synonymous with the High Renaissance. However, he was younger than Michelangelo by 18 years and Leonardo by nearly 30. It cannot be said of him that he greatly advanced the state of painting as his two famous contemporaries did. Rather, his work was the culmination of all the developments of the High Renaissance. Raphael had the good luck to be born the son of a painter, so his career path, unlike that of Michelangelo who was the son of minor nobility, was decided without a quarrel. Some years after his father's death he worked in theUmbria n workshop ofPerugino , an excellent painter and a superb technician. His first signed and dated painting, executed at the age of 21, is the "Betrothal of the Virgin", which immediately reveals its origins in Perugino's "Christ giving the Keys to Peter".Raphael was a carefree character who unashamedly drew on the skills of the renowned painters whose lifespans encompassed his. In his works the individual qualities of numerous different painters are drawn together. The rounded forms and luminous colours of Perugino, the lifelike portraiture of Ghirlandaio, the realism and lighting of Leonardo and the powerful draughtsmanship of Michelangelo became unified in the paintings of Raphael. In his short life he executed a number of large altarpieces, an impressive Classical fresco of the sea nymph, Galatea, outstanding portraits with two popes and a famous writer among them, and, while Michelangelo was painting the
Sistine Chapel ceiling , a series of wall frescoes in the Vatican chambers nearby, of which "theSchool of Athens " is uniquely significant.This fresco depicts a meeting of all the most learned ancient Athenians, gathered in a grand classical setting around the central figure of
Plato , whom Raphael has famously modelled uponLeonardo da Vinci . The brooding figure ofHeraclitus who sits by a large block of stone, is a portrait ofMichelangelo , and is an obvious reference to the latter's painting of the ProphetJeremiah in the Sistine Chapel. His own portrait is to the right, beside his teacher, Perugino. [Some sources identify this figure asSodoma , but it is an older, grey-haired man, while Sodoma was in his 30s. Moreover, it strongly resembles several self-portraits of Perugino, who would have been about 60 at the time.]But the main source of Raphael's popularity was not his major works, but his little Florentine pictures of the Madonna and Christ Child. Over and over he painted the same plump calm-faced blonde woman and her succession of chubby babies, the most famous probably being "La Belle Jardiniere", ("The Madonna of the Beautiful Garden") now in the
Louvre . His larger work, "theSistine Madonna ", used as a design for countlessstained glass windows, has come, in the 21st century, to provide the iconic image of two small cherubs which have been reproduced on everything from paper table napkins to umbrellas. [David Thompson, "Raphael, the Life and Legacy", (1983)] [Jean-Pierre Cuzin, "Raphael, his Life and Works", (1985)]High Renaissance painting in Venice
Giovanni Bellini
Giovanni Bellini was the exact contemporary of his brother Gentile, his brother-in-lawMantegna andAntonello da Messina . Working most of his life in the studio of his brother, and strongly influenced by the crisp style of Mantegna, he does not appear to have produced an independently signed painting until he was in his late 50s. During the last 30 years of his life he was both extraordinarily productive and influential, having the guidance of bothGiorgione andTitian . Bellini, like his much younger contemporary,Raphael , produced numerous small Madonnas in rich glowing colour, usually of more intense tonality than his Florentine counterpart. These Madonnas multiplied prolifically as they were reproduced by other members of the large Bellini studio, one tiny picture, "the Circumcision of Christ" existing in four or five almost identical versions.Traditionally, in the painting of altarpieces of the "Madonna and Child", the enthroned figure of the Virgin is accompanied by saints, who stand in defined spaces, separated physically in the form of a polytych or defined by painted architectural boundaries.
Piero della Francesca used the Classical niche as a setting for his enthroned Madonnas, asMasaccio had used it as the setting for his "Holy Trinity" atSanta Maria Novella . Piero grouped saints around the throne, in the architectural space.Bellini used this same form, known as "Sacred conversations", in several of his later altarpieces such as that for the Venetian church of
San Zaccaria . It is a masterful composition which extends the real architecture of the building into the illusionistic architecture of the painting, making the niche a sort ofloggia opened up to the landscape and to daylight which streams across the figures of the Virgin and Child, the two female saints and the little angel who plays aviola making them brighter than the two elderly male saints who stand to the fore in the picture, Peter deep in thought and Jerome immersed in a book. [Mariolina Olivari, "Giovanni Bellini", (1990)]Giorgione and Titian
Whilst the style of
Giorgione 's painting clearly relates to that of his presumed master,Giovanni Bellini , his subject matter makes him one of the most original and abstruse artists of the Renaissance. One of his paintings, of a landscape known as "the Tempest", with a semi-naked woman feeding a baby, a clothed man, some classical columns and a flash of lightning, perhaps representsAdam and Eve in their post-Eden days, or perhaps it doesn't. Another painting, called "the Philosophers" may represent theMagi planning their journey in search of the infant Christ, but this is not certain either. One thing that appears to be certain is that Giorgione painted a female nude, the very first female nude that stands, or rather, lies, as a subject to be portrayed and admired for beauty alone. There are no need for Classical references in this painting, although in later nudes Titian, Velazquez, Veronese, Rembrandt, Rubens and even Manet saw fit to add some. They are the artistic heirs of Giorgione's nude.On his premature death, Titian completed the painting and went on to paint a great more naked women, most frequently, as Botticelli did, disguising them as goddesses and surrounding them with sylvan woods and starry skies to make perfect decoration for the walls of rich clientele. But it was as a painter of portraits that Titian excelled, his longevity allowing him to achieve far more, both in the way of production and in stylistic development than either Giorgione or his Florentine contemporary
Raphael were able to. Titian gave the world images ofPietro Aretino andPope Paul III and many other people of his day, perhaps his most powerful portrait being that of DogeAndrea Gritti , ruler of Venice, who looms large in the picture space, one huge hand clasping his heavily-buttoned robe in a dynamic Expressionistic gesture. Titian is also renowned for his religious painting, his last work being a turbulent and abstracted "Pieta". [Cecil Gould, "Titian", (1969)]Influence of Italian Renaissance painting
Michelangelo andTitian both lived into the second half of the 16th century. Both saw their styles and those ofLeonardo ,Mantegna ,Giovanni Bellini ,Antonello da Messina andRaphael adapted by later painters to form a disparate style known asMannerism , and move steadily towards the great outpouring of imagination and painterly virtuosity of the Baroque period.The artist who most extended the trends in Titian's large figurative compositions is
Tintoretto , although his personal manner was such that he only lasted nine days as Titian's apprentice.Rembrandt 's knowledge of the works of both Titian and Raphael is apparent in his portraits. The direct influences of Leonardo and Raphael upon their own pupils was to effect generations of artists includingPoussin and schools of Classical painters of the 18th and 19th centuries. Antonello da Messina's work had a direct influence onAlbrecht Dürer andMartin Schongauer and through the latter's engravings, countless artists including the German, Dutch and English schools ofstained glass makers extending into the early 20th century.Michelangelo's
Sistine Chapel ceiling and later "The Last Judgment" had direct influence on the figurative compositions firstly of Raphael and his pupils and then almost every subsequent 16th century painter who looked for new and interesting ways to depict the human form. It is possible to trace his style of figurative composition throughAndrea del Sarto ,Pontormo ,Bronzino ,Parmigianino , Veronese, toel Greco , Carracci,Caravaggio ,Rubens ,Poussin andTiepolo to both the Classical and the Romantic painters of the 19th century such asJacques Louis David andDelacroix .Under the influence of the Italian Renaissance painting, many modern academies of art were founded and it was specifically to collect the works of the Italian Renaissance that some of the world's best known art collections were formed. [ for example the
Royal Academy , and theNational Gallery, London .]ee also
*
Italian Renaissance painting, development of themes
*Renaissance
*Renaissance architecture
*Mannerism
*Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and Architects Notes and references
Bibliography
General
* Giorgio Vasari, "
Lives of the Artists ", (1568), 1965 edition, trans George Bull, Penguin, ISBN 0140441646
* Frederick Hartt, "A History of Italian Renaissance Art", (1970) Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0500231362
* R.E. Wolf and R. Millen, "Renaissance and Mannerist Art", (1968) Abrams, ISBN unknown
* Keith Christiansen, "Italian Painting", (1992) Hugh Lauter Levin/Macmillan, ISBN 0883639718
* Helen Gardner, "Art through the Ages", (1970) Harcourt, Brace and World, ISBN 155037628
* Michael Baxandall, "Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy", (1974) Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198813295
* Margaret Aston, "The Fifteenth Century, the Prospect of Europe", (1979) Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0500330093
* Ilan Rachum, "The Renaissance, an Illustrated Encyclopedia", (1979) Octopus, ISBN 0706408578
* Diana Davies, "Harrap's Illustrated Dictionary of Art and Artists", (1990) Harrap Books, ISBN 0245546928
* Luciano Berti, "Florence: the city and its art", (1971) Scala, ISBN unknown
* Luciano Berti, "The Ufizzi", (1971) Scala, Florence. ISBN unknown
* Michael Wilson, "The National Gallery, London", (1977) Scala, ISBN 0850972574
* Hugh Ross Williamson, "Lorenzo the Magnificent", (1974) Michael Joseph, ISBN 0718112040Painters
* John White, "Duccio", (1979) Thames and Hudson, ISBN 0500091358
* Cecilia Jannella, "Duccio di Buoninsegna", (1991) Scala/Riverside, ISBN 1878351184
* Sarel Eimerl, "The World of Giotto", (1967) Time/Life, ISBN 0900658150
* Mgr. Giovanni Foffani, "Frescoes by Giusto de' Menabuoi", (1988) G. Deganello, ISBN unknown
* Ornella Casazza, "Masaccio and the Brancacci Chapel", ((1990) Scala/Riverside, ISBN 1878351117
* Annarita Paolieri, "Paolo Uccello, Domenico Veneziano, Andrea del Castagno", (1991) Scala/Riverside, ISBN 1878351206
* Alessandro Angelini, "Piero della Francesca", (1985) Scala/Riverside, ISBN 1878351044
* Peter Murray and Pier Luigi Vecchi, "Piero della Francesca", (1967) Penguin, ISBN 0140086471
* Umberto Baldini, "Primavera", (1984) Abrams, ISBN 0810923149
* Ranieri Varese, "Il Palazzo di Schifanoia", (1980) Specimen/Scala, ISBN unknown
* Angela Ottino della Chiesa, "Leonardo da Vinci", (1967) Penguin, ISBN 0140086498
* Jack Wasserman, "Leonardo da Vinci", (1975) Abrams, ISBN 0810902621
* Massimo Giacometti, "The Sistine Chapel", (1986) Harmony Books, ISBN 051756274X
* Ludwig Goldschieder, "Michelangelo", (1962) Phaidon, ISBN unknown
* Gabriel Bartz and Eberhard König, "Michelangelo", (1998) Könemann, ISBN 382900253X
* David Thompson, "Raphael, the Life and Legacy", (1983) BBC, ISBN 0563201495
* Jean-Pierre Cuzin, "Raphael, his Life and Works", (1985) Chartwell, ISBN 0890098417
* Mariolina Olivari, "Giovanni Bellini", (1990) Scala. ISBN unknown
* Cecil Gould, "Titian", (1969) Hamlyn, ISBN unknown
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