Toplessness

:"This article deals with topless females. For males, see barechestedness."

Toplessness refers to the state in which a woman or postpubescent girl has her breasts uncovered, with her areolae and nipples visible, usually in a public space. The adjective topless may refer to a woman who appears, poses, or performs with her breasts exposed (a "topless model"); to an activity or performance that involves exposing the breasts (a "topless dance"); to a graphic, photographic, or filmic depiction of a woman with her breasts uncovered (a "topless photograph"); to a place where female toplessness is tolerated or expected (a "topless beach"); or to a garment designed to reveal the breasts (a "topless swimsuit").

In many societies today, concealment of the breasts, or at least of the nipples and areolae, is a cultural norm of female modesty. However, considerable variance has existed in attitudes toward toplessness, both across cultures and through history. The traditional cultures of North America, Africa, Australia and the Pacific Islands considered female toplessness normal and acceptable, at least until the arrival of Christian missionaries [ [http://christianbreastsnbuns.groups.vox.com/library/post/6a00e398d17d33000200e398d8bc4f0005.html CUSTOMS AND CULTURES, Anthropology for Christian Missions, by Eugene A. Nida 1954, Harper & Brothers, New York] ] , and it continues to be the norm in many indigenous cultures today. Toplessness was also the norm in Sri Lanka and other Asian cultures before Muslim expansion in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. [ [http://livingheritage.org/toplessness.htm The Garb of Innocence: A Time of Toplessness] ] In most Middle Eastern countries, toplessness has not been socially accepted since at least the early beginning of Islam (7th century), because of Islamic standards for female modesty. However, toplessness was the norm in earlier cultures within Arabia, Egypt, Assyria and Mesopotamia.

Cultural and legal attitudes in the West

In many European societies between the Renaissance and the nineteenth century, breast exposure was not necessarily considered overtly risqué, since a woman's bared legs, ankles, or shoulders were considered to be more scandalous than exposed breasts. [C. Willett and Phillis Cunnington, "The History of Underclothes". London: Faber & Faber, 1981] Because aristocratic and upper-class women could maintain youthful-looking breasts by employing wet nurses to breastfeed their children, they often displayed their breasts as a sign of virtue, beauty, wealth, or social status. In addition, the bared breast during this era was seen to invoke associations with the nude sculptures of classical Greece that were exerting a huge influence on art, sculpture, and architecture of the period. [Lucy Gent and Nigel Llewellyn, eds., "Renaissance Bodies: The Human Figure in English Culture c. 1540–1660. London: Reaktion Books, 1990.]

Historians have traced the emergence of breast-baring female fashions to the fifteenth-century courtesan Agnès Sorel, mistress to Charles VII of France, who was known to wear gowns in the French court that exposed one or both of her breasts. (Jean Fouquet's portrayal of the Virgin Mary with her left breast uncovered is believed to have taken Sorel as a model.) Similar fashions were popularized in England during the seventeenth century by Queen Mary II and by Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I of England, for whom architect Inigo Jones designed a masque costume that fully revealed both of her breasts. [Lucy Gent and Nigel Llewellyn, eds., "Renaissance Bodies: The Human Figure in English Culture c. 1540–1660. London: Reaktion Books, 1990.]

From the Victorian era onward, however, social attitudes shifted in the West to mandate the concealment of women's breasts. Contemporary Western societies generally take an unfavorable view of toplessness, with the very term "topless" often carrying the connotation of sexual licentiousness or deliberate defiance of cultural taboos. How much of her breasts a woman may display depends heavily on social and cultural context. Displaying cleavage is considered permissible in many settings, and is even a sign of elegance and sophistication on many formal social occasions. Women's swimsuits and bikinis may also reveal the tops and sides of the breasts. However, showing the nipples or areolae is considered partial nudity. Women many consider toplessness acceptable in gender segregated areas such as changing rooms, dormitories, and communal showers, and toplessness may be permitted in specific zones such as topless beaches (see below), but full breast exposure outside of these contexts is mostly confined to occasional acts of exhibitionism or protest.

Some cultures have begun to apply social interdictions on female toplessness to prepubescent and even infant girls, who are often dressed by their parents in bikinis or one-piece swimsuits on beaches and at water parks. This trend toward covering the female nipple from infancy onward is particularly noticeable in the United States and the United Kingdom, but is much less common in continental Europe and Latin America.

Legally, many Western jurisdictions consider the public display of women's breasts to be indecent exposure. However, the activist topfreedom movement has been successful in some instances in persuading courts to overturn such laws on the basis of sex discrimination, arguing that a woman should be free to expose her chest in any context in which a man can expose his. Campaigns promoting the health benefits of breast milk have also convinced many jurisdictions to make exceptions to the law for public breastfeeding. [ [http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,200615,00.html FOXNews.com - Indecent Exposure - FOX Fan ] ] In the United States, for instance, a federal law enacted in 1999 [ [http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=106_cong_public_laws&docid=f:publ058.106 Treasury and General Government Appropriations Act, 2000] ] specifically provides that "a woman may breastfeed her child at any location in a Federal building or on Federal property, if the woman and her child are otherwise authorized to be present at the location."

Since many indigenous, non-Western cultures consider it culturally normal for both men and women to go without clothing on their torsos, and since female toplessness can also constitute an important aspect of indigenous cultural celebrations, cross-cultural and legal conflict has taken place on the issue. Such an instance occurred when Australian police banned members of the Papunya community in 2004 from using a public park in the city of Alice Springs to practice a traditional Aboriginal dance that featured topless women. [ [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3493408.stm BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | Aborigines' fury over topless ban ] ]

Topless beaches

In the mid-1960s, led by movie starlets and models in Cannes and Saint-Tropez, women began to remove their bikini tops while sunbathing on the beaches of the French Riviera. The practice slowly spread to other Western countries, many of which now allow topless sunbathing on some or all of their beaches, either through legal statute or by custom. A topless beach differs from a nude beach or naturist beach in that beach goers of both sexes are required to keep their genital area covered, while at an officially sanctioned topless beach women have an option to remove their tops without fearing legal prosecution or official harassment. Women who sunbathe topless do not necessarily consider themselves to be nudists.

Beaches permitting topless swimming and sunbathing are especially common in Europe and Australia, where they are mostly uncontroversial. An academic study conducted in the mid-1990s found that 88 percent of Australian university students, of both genders, considered it socially acceptable for women to remove their tops on public beaches—even though the majority disapproved of women exposing their breasts in other contexts, such as public parks. [Herold, E.S., Corbesi, B., & Collins, J. (1994). Psychosocial aspects of female topless behavior on Australian beaches. "Journal of Sex Research," 31, 133–142.] In the United States, which is generally more disapproving of female toplessness than Europe or Australia, topless sunbathing is permitted at specifically designated beaches such as South Beach in Miami, Florida and Black's Beach in San Diego, California. However, women can find themselves in legal trouble for sunbathing topless in countries with traditionally conservative values. In July 2008, as part of a crackdown on indecent behavior, police in the Muslim city-state of Dubai arrested 79 Western tourists for offenses including topless sunbathing. Multilingual signs have now been erected on Dubai's beaches warning that women who remove their tops can face criminal prosecution. [ [http://www.news.com.au/travel/story/0,26058,24023147-5014090,00.html Dubai gets tough on nudity after sex show | NEWS.com.au ] ] However, topless bathing is permitted at some beaches in tourist cities in Muslim countries like Egypt, specifically Sharm El Sheikh and Hurghada, as well as other Red Sea Province cities.

Topless sunbathing is sometimes permitted in contexts other than beaches. Many resort hotels now allow topless sunbathing at their swimming pools, and some cruise ships offer decks on which women may remove their tops. At the Kenwood Ladies' Bathing Pond in London's Hampstead Heath, the Greater London Council has permitted topless sunbathing and swimming since 1976, although men are not allowed to enter the bathing area. [ [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/dec/10/gender.london Threat to close Kenwood ladies' pond | World news | The Guardian ] ]

Arts

In many European societies between the Renaissance and the nineteenth century, classical Greek culture exerted a strong influence on Renaissance art, literature, and architecture. [Lucy Gent and Nigel Llewellyn, eds., "Renaissance Bodies: The Human Figure in English Culture c. 1540–1660. London: Reaktion Books, 1990.] Images of the nude and semi-nude subjects proliferated in art and sculpture of the time.

During the Victorian era, French Orientalist painters such as Jean-Léon Gérôme presented an idealized depiction of female toplessness in Muslim harem baths. [ [http://www.bikiniscience.com/costumes/soutien-gorge_SS/topless_S/topless.html Toplessness defined] ]

From the mid-nineteenth century onward, there was a shift in social attitudes in the West, especially in the United States, towards the prohibition of the exposure of women's breasts. In the 1920s, the Hays Code brought an end to toplessness in Hollywood films. However, the French musical theater and cinema continued to use topless dancers and actresses during the 1910s and beyond. Toplessness as a form of entertainment has survived to this day at the Folies Bergère.

Entertainment and media

In many cultures, women are regularly featured topless in magazines, calendars, and other print media. In the United Kingdom, following a tradition established by "The Sun" in 1970, several mainstream tabloid newspapers feature topless female models on their third page, known as Page Three girls. Although images of topless women are increasingly prevalent in Western magazines and film, images of topless girls under the age of eighteen years are controversial, and are potentially considered child pornography in some jurisdictions. Photographers such as Jock Sturges and Bill Henson, whose work regularly features images of topless adolescent girls, have been prosecuted or been embroiled in controversy because of these depictions. [ [http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,23745396-2702,00.html PM says Henson photos have no artistic merit | The Australian ] ] Even insinuated toplessness by minors can cause controversy.

Women also often appear topless in mainstream cinema, although some prominent actresses have used body doubles instead of exposing their own breasts on film.

Women are also at times employed in adult-only venues to perform or pose topless in forms of commercial erotic entertainment. Such venues can range from downmarket strip clubs to upmarket cabarets, such as the Moulin Rouge. Topless entertainment may also include competitions such as wet T-shirt contests in which women display their breasts through translucent wet fabric—and may end up removing their T-shirts before the audience.

Female toplessness has also become a feature of carnivals such as Mardi Gras, notably in New Orleans, during which women "flash" (briefly expose) their breasts in return for strings of plastic beads; and Carnaval of Rio de Janiero where floats occasionally feature topless women.

Image gallery

See also

* Sociology of clothing.
* Topfreedom.
* Breastfeeding.
* Naturism (including nudism).
* Handbra.

References