Behavior management

Behavior management is similar to behavior modification. It is a less intensive version of behavior modification. In behavior modification the focus is on changing behavior, while in behavior management the focus is on maintaining order. Behavior management skills are particularly of importance to teachers in the educational system.Behavior management is all of the actions and conscious inactions to enhance the probability people, individually and in groups, choose behaviors which are personally fulfilling, productive, and socially acceptable [: Baldwin J.D. and Baldwinn J.I. (1986). Behavior principals in everyday life ( 2nd Edition), Engle Wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. ]

Uses of Behavior Management

Many of the principles and techniques used are the same as behavior modification yet delivered in a less intensive and consistent fashion. Usually, behavior management is applied at the group level by a classroom teacher as a form of behavioral engineering to produce high rates of student work completion and minimize classroom disruption. In addition, greater focus has been placed on building self control- Brophy (1986) writes:

"Contemporary behavior modification approaches involve students more actively in planning and shaping their own behavior through participation in the negotiation of contracts with their teachers and through exposure to training designed to help them to monitor and evaluate their behavior more actively, to learn techniques of self-control and problem solving, and to set goals and reinforce themselves for meeting these goals." (p. 191) [Brophy, J. (1986)."Classroom Management Techniques." Education and Urban Society 18/2, 182-194]

In general behavior management strategies have been very effective in reducing classroom disruption [Brophy, J. E. (1983) "Classroom Organization and Management." The Elementary School Journal 83/4, 265-285. ]

While such programs can come from a variety of Behavioural change theories, the most common practices rely on the use of applied behavior analysis principles such as positive reinforcement and mild punishments (such as response cost and Child time-out. In general the reward component is considered effective.For example, Cotton (1988) reviewed 37 studies on tokens, praise and other reward systems and found them to be highly effective in managing student classroom behavior. [Cotton, K. (1988).Instructional Reinforcement. Close-Up No. 3. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory. ] . The most comprehensive review of token procedures to match to children's level of behavioral severity was Walker's text "The acting out child" [Walker, H.(1990). The Acting Out Child. Sorporis West.]

Building Prosocial Behavior

Over the years, behavioral management principles such as reinforcement, modeling and even the use of punishment have been explored in the building of prosocial behavior. This area is sometimes referred to as "Behavioral Development" or Behavior Analysis of Child Development". Midlarsky and colleagues (1973) used a combination of modeling and reinforcement to build altruistic behavior [Midlarsky, E., Bryan, J.H., & Brickman, P.(1973). Aversive approval: Interactive effects of modeling and reinforcement on altruistic behavior. "Child Development, 44," 321-328] . Two studies exist in which modeling by itself did not increase prosocial behavior [Harris, M.B.(1970). Reciprocity and generosity: Some determinants of sharing in children." Child Development, 41," 313-328.] [Elliot, R., & Vasta, R.(1970). Effects associated with vicarious reinforcement, symbolization, age, and generalization. "Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 10", 8-15] ; however, modeling is much more effective then instruction giving such as "preaching" [Bryan, J.H. & Walbek, N.H.(1970). Impact of words and deeds concerning altruism upon children. Child Development, 41, 747-759] [Bryan, J.H. & Walbek, N.(1970). Preaching and practicing generosity: Children's action and reaction. Child Development, 41, 329-353.] The role of rewards has been implicated in the building of self-control [Barry, L.M. & Haraway, D.L. (2005). Self-Management and ADHD: A Literature Review. "The Behavior Analyst Today, 6.(1)," 48-64 [http://www.behavior-analyst-online.org BAO] ] and empathy [Maccoby, E.M(1968). The development of moral values and behavior in childhood. In J.A. Clausen's (Ed). "Socialization and Society". Little Brown Books: Boston] [Aronfreed, J.(1968). "Conduct and conscience: The socializing of internalized control of overt behavior." New York: Academic Press] [Aronfreed, J. (1970). The socialization of altruistic and sympathetic behavior: Some theoretical and experimental analysis. In J. Macauley & L. Berkowitz (Eds.) "Altruism and helping behavior." New York: Academic Press. ] . Cooperation seems particularly susceptible to rewards [Azrin, N. & Lindsley, O.(1956). The reinforcement of cooperation between children." Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 2," 100-102] [Mithaug, E.D., & Burgess, R.L.(1968). The effects of different reinforcement contingencies in the development of social cooperation. "Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 6," 402-426.] [Vogler, R.E., Masters, W.M. & Merrill, G.S.(1970). Shaping cooperative behavior in young children. "Journal of Psychology, 74", 181-186.] [Vogler, R.E., Masters, W.M., & Merrill, G.S.(1971). Extinction of cooperative behavior as a function of acquisition by shaping or instruction. "Journal of Genetic Psychology, 119", 233-240.] . Sharing is another prosocial behavior influenced by reinforcement [Doland, D.J. & Adelberg, K.(1967). The learning of sharing behavior. "Child Development, 38," 695-700] [Gelfand, D.M., Hartmann, D.P., Cromer, C.C., Smith, C.L., & Page, B.C.(1975). The effects of instructional prompts and praise on children's donation rates. "Child Development, 46," 980-983]

Reinforcement is particularly effective at least early in the learning series if context conditions are similar [Fisher, W.F.(1963). Sharing in preschool as a function of the amount and type of reinforcement. "Genetic Psychology Monograph, 68," 215-245.] . Evidence exists to show some generalization [Altman, K.(1971). Effects of cooperative response acquisition on social behavior during free play." Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 12", 387-395]

More controversial has been the role of punishment in forming prosocial behavior. One study found that donation rates of children could be increased by punishing episodes of failure to donate [Hartmann, D.P., Gelfand, D.M., Smith, C.L., Paul, S.C., Cromer, C.C., Page, B.C. & Lebenta, D.V.(1976). Factors affecting the acquisition and elimination of children's donating behavior. "Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 21," 328-338]

The socialization process continues by peers with reinforcement and punishment playing major roles. Peers are more likely to punish cross gender play and reinforce play speific to gender [Fagot, B.I.., & Patterson, G.R.(1969). An in vivo analysis of reinforcing contingencies for sex role behaviors in the preschool child. "Developmental Psychology" ] [Lamb, M.E. & Roopnarine, J.L. (1979). Peer influences on sex role deelopment in preschoolers. Child Development, 50, 1219-1222] [Lamb, M.E., Easterbrooks, M.A., & Holden, G.(1980). Reinforcement and punishment among preschoolers: Characteristics and correles. "Child Development, 51," 1230-1236]

Behavior management and reading

Behavioral interventions have been shown to be effective in increasing the rates of reading. Recently, however, a more longitudinal look shows that behavioral rewards of reading correlates with long term positive outcomes [Flora, S.R. & Flora, D.B. (1999). Effects of extrinsic reinforcement for reading during childhood on the reported reading habits of college students. "Psychological Record", 49, 3-14] . Childhood rewards for reading even seem to correlate with performance in college. [Flora, S.R. & Popanak, S.S. (2004). Childhood pay for grades is related to college grade point averages. "Psychological Reports, 94," 66]

ee also

*Contingency management
*Applied Behavior Analysis
*Behavior Modification
*behavioral engineering
*Child time-out
*professional practice of behavior analysis
*Behavior analysis of child development

References