Women as theological figures

Women as theological figures, have played a significant role in the development of various religions and religious hierarchies.

In religious hierarchies

Women can take on specific roles in different religious hierarchies.

*In various religions (including Christianity and Buddhism) women can take on the role of nuns: the head of a nunnery is an abbess.
*In the Classical period women could, among other roles, be priestesses, Vestal Virgins and Maenads.
*From the Early Christian period there have been deaconesses and abbesses.
*In the modern period women can serve as priests in a number of churches in the Anglican Communion and in some parts of the Anglican Church such as the Anglican Church of Canada and the Episcopal Church in the United States of America, they have been elected as bishops: there is presently a move towards opening up the role of bishop to them in the Church of England, which was adopted in July 2008.
*Women can also serve as ministers in various other Protestant churches
*Certain modern Jewish traditions allow female rabbis—for example Rabbi Julia Neuberger
*There have also been women missionaries—the China Inland Mission was one of the first organisations to recruit single women to this end
*Recent archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest known shamans—dating to the Upper Paleolithic era in what is now the Czech Republic—were women. [Tedlock, Barbara. 2005. The Woman in the Shaman's Body: Reclaiming the Feminine in Religion and Medicine. New York: Bantam.] Women can also serve in the same kinds of roles as men in religious leadership or serve by their accomplishments in leadership roles.

*Several women played leading roles in the early days of the Bahá'í Faith in the religion and in America specifically [http://www.planetbahai.org/cgi-bin/articles.pl?article=93] , [http://bahai-library.com/theses/christianity.bahai/2.html] and [http://bahai-library.com/?file=finch_unclipping_wings] . Among them are: May Maxwell [http://bahai-library.com/?file=may_ellis_maxwell_bw] , Corinne True [http://bahai-library.com/?file=maneck_women_bahai_faith] , and Martha Root and these roles have continued through the twentieth century with Amatu'l-Bahá Ruhiyyih Khanum [http://bahai-library.com/newspapers/011900.html] served in both elected and appointed roles of national and international leadership.
*Patricia Locke was the first American Indian woman elected in the National administrative institution of the Bahá'í Faith of the United States. [http://www.bahai.us/node/80]
*Jaqueline Left Hand Bull Delahunt has served in appointed as well as elected national leadership of the Bahá'í Faith of the United States and was profiled in "A Parliament of Souls: Conversations with 28 Spiritual Leaders from Around the World" in 1994 [http://www.creativefilms.com/Pos.html] .
*Layli Miller-Muro founded the Tahirih Justice Center in 1997 following a well-publicized asylum case in which she was involved as a student attorney. Layli later co-wrote a book with the client she had aided and used her portion of the proceeds for the initial funding of Center. As of 2003, the organization had assisted more than 4,000 women and children fleeing from a wide variety of abuses.
*Dr. Susan Maneck, a researcher in women studies and religion has written many articles including "Women in the Baha'i Faith" [http://bahai-library.com/?file=maneck_women_bahai_faith]

Bahá'í Faith

*The Holy Spirit, as the means of the announcement of the Revelation of God to His Messenger has been presented symbolically as a Dove in Christianity, the angel Gabriel in Islam, and in the Bahá'í Faith as the Maid of Heaven. As the presentation of the Holy Spirit She is referred to several times in the Bahá'í literature including quotes such as in the Hidden Words (Persian number 77) and "The Tablet of the Holy Mariner":

:::In the night-season the beauty of the immortal Beauty hath repaired from the emerald height of fidelity unto the Sadratu'l-Muntahá (figuratively the tree beyond which there is no path, no passing—the summit of this world beyond which are the infinite worlds of God) and wept with such a weeping that the concourse on high and the dwellers of the realms above wailed at his lamenting. Whereupon there was asked why the wailing and weeping? He made reply: as bidden I waited expectant upon the hill of faithfulness, yet inhaled not from them that dwelt on the earth the fragrance of fidelity. Then summoned to return I beheld, and lo! certain doves of holiness were sore tried within the claws of the dogs of earth. Thereupon the Maid of Heaven hastened forth unveiled and resplendent from Her mystic mansion, and asked of their names, and all were told but one. And when urged the first letter thereof was uttered, whereupon the dwellers of the celestial chambers rushed forth out of their habitation of glory. And whilst the second letter was pronounced they fell down, one and all upon the dust. At that moment a voice was heard from the inmost shrine: "Thus far and no farther."

See [http://www.breacais.demon.co.uk/abs/bsr04/43_abdo_femalespirit.htm Female Representations of the Holy Spirit in Bahá'í and Christian writings and their implications for gender roles] and [http://www.angelfire.com/ca3/bigquestions/houri.html The Maid of Heaven] for further reading.

*Táhirih was the seventeenth disciple or "Letter of the Living" of the Báb, and the only woman in that group, and thus she is sometimes been compared to Mary Magdelene in that aspect. Unlike the other Letters of the Living, she never met the Báb, but communicated with him through letters. After the Báb's arrest in 1848, Táhirih attended a conference of Bábí leaders in Badasht, Persia where she appeared in public without her veil stressing the separation of Babi laws from the Islamic Sharia. It was at the Badasht conference that she was given the title Táhirih by Bahá'u'lláh, which means "the Pure One" or "Virginial." With the virtual extermination of the Bábi movement in the early 1850s, Táhirih was killed in her early to mid 30's in 1852 in the garden of Ilkhani in Tehran, capital of modern day Iran. One of her most notable quotes is her deathbed utterance, "You can kill me as soon as you like, but you cannot stop the emancipation of women."
*Ásíyih Khánum, Bahá'u'lláh's wife, was given the title Navváb by Bahá'u'lláh. Bahá'u'lláh also named her the Most Exalted Leaf and declared her his "perpetual consort in all the worlds of God."
*Bahíyyih Khánum was Bahá'u'lláh's daughter and entitled the Greatest Holy Leaf. She was particularly dear to her father and is seen within the Bahá'í Faith as one of greatest women to have lived:::"Verily, We have elevated thee to the rank of one of the most distinguished among thy sex, and granted thee, in My court, a station such as none other woman hath surpassed.":::(Baha'u'llah, quoted in The Bahá'í World, vol. V, p. 171) [http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/bwc/BK/bk-2.html] :After the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá, and until Shoghi Effendi took up his appointed role of Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, she was the head of the religion.

Buddhism

*Khema, first Chief female disciple in power
*Kisa Gotami
*Machig Labdrön—founder of the Tibetan practice of Chöd
*Maha Pajapati Gotami
*Pema Chodron—fully ordained Buddhist nun in the Tibetan Shambhala lineage.
*Ani Tenzin Palmo—a nun in the Drukpa Kagyu lineage and founder of Dongyu Gatsal Ling Nunnery in Himachal Pradesh, India
*Uppalavanna, second Chief female disciple
*Yeshe Tsogyal—Tibetan consort and disciple of the Padmasambhava

Christianity

In the early 16th century Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, a German theologian teaching in France published "On the Nobility and Superiority of the Female Sex" in which he argued that there was no reason why women should not hold political or religious office.

During the period of Oliver Cromwell's rule there were many religious and political debates and developments. Among the former (see Gangrena for a partial overview) were female preachers. Around that time, the Religious Society of Friends took a position in favor of women as equal participants in religious observance; see Quaker views of women for an overview.

Women prominent in the New Testament

*Lydia and Phoebe—*
Mary Magdalene—one of Jesus' closest followers
*Mary of Bethany—disciple of Jesus. Sometimes misidentified with Mary Magdalene
*Mary—Mother of Jesus
*Priscilla— with her husband Aquila was a New Testament teacher, partner with Apostle Paul,

Women prominent in the Early Christian Church

*Saints Perpetua and Felicity important martyrs
*Saint Monica of Hippo
*Clotilde
*Hilda of Whitby—royal abbess in the 7th century.

Women prominent in the Medieval church

*Antoinette Bourignon—a mystic
*St. Bridget of Sweden (1302–1373)
*Heloise (student of Abelard)
*Hildegard of Bingen— theologian, mystic, wrote much music (there being some recordings)
*Julian of Norwich— a mystic
*St. Margery Kempe (c.1373–1438)
*Saint Macrina the Younger—sister and influence upon Saint Basil the Great and Saint Gregory of Nyssa
*St. Clare of Assisi—founded the Poor Clares
*St. Julian of Norwich (1342-c.1416)
*St. Scholastica—twin sister of Benedict of Nursia

Women prominent in the Catholic church (Post-Reformation)

*Mme Guyon was influential in Quietism (Christian philosophy)
*Mother Cabrini—missionary to New York and first canonized US citizen
*Mother Teresa—founder of the Missionaries of Charity in India
*St. Elizabeth Ann Seton—founded the Sisters of Charity
*St. Faustina Kowalska—promoted devotion to Divine Mercy
*St. Katharine Drexel—founded the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament, which performed charitable works for Native Americans and African Americans
*St. Rose Philippine Duchesne—co-founder of the Society of the Sacred Heart
*St. Teresa of Avila a mystic

In 1970 three women were declared Doctor of the Church
*St. Catherine of Siena
*St. Teresa of Avila
*St. Thérèse of Lisieux

Feliksa Kozlowska was involved in the establishment of the Mariavite Church, a Catholic-based church one part of which accepts women priests and bishops.

Women prominent in Protestant Churches

*Anne Boleyn—influenced religious development in England indirectly by leading Henry VIII to divorce Catherine of Aragon and break from the Catholic ChurchThere have been a number of hymns written by women, and also psalms, from the pen of Fanny Crosby and Emily Gosse, for example.
*Aimee Semple McPherson ("Sister Aimee") an early 20th century evangelist and founder of the Foursquare Church
*Ann Wardley—contributed to the development of the Shakers
*Catherine Booth—cofounder of the Salvation Army
*Elizabeth Fry—Quaker and prison reformer
*Ellen G. White—co-founder and prophetess of the Seventh-day Adventist Church
*Evangeline Booth—fourth General of the Salvation Army
*Hannah Whitall Smith—prominent leader in the Holiness movement
*Joanna Southcott—an 18th Century self-described religious prophetess and founder of Southcottians
*Li Tim-Oi The first female priest to be ordained in the Anglican Communion
*Louisa Maria Hubbard (1836–1906)—involved in the deaconess movement and published in 1871 a pamphlet: Anglican Deaconesses: is there No Place for Women in the System?
*Mother Ann Lee—leader of the Shakers in America
*Phoebe Palmer—prominent leader in the Holiness movement
*Selina, Countess of Huntingdon—was involved with Methodism and there was a group called the Countess of Huntingdon's Connection
*Mary Baker Eddy—founded Christian Science

Hinduism

Recognition of the feminine aspect of God during the last century by Tantric and Shakti religious leaders, has led to the legitimization of the female teachers and female gurus in Hinduism. A notable example was Ramakrishna, who worshiped his wife as the embodiment of the divine feminine. ref|shattuck

*Gangaji aka Antoinette Roberson Varner
*Gurumayi Chidvilasananda, latest teacher in the lineage of teachers of Siddha Yoga (as of 2007).
*Mata Amritanandamayi
*Mother Meera referred to as a "female guru" by author Karen Pechilis ref|pechilis

Islam

In May 2006 Morocco appointed 50 female preachers (Mourchidats)
*Aisha bint Talha—Eminent scholar
*A'isha—Narrator of largest number of hadith
*Maryam-mother of Isa (Jesus)
*Amara bin Al-Rahman—Exemplary woman jurist
*Asma bint Abu Bakr—Narrator of Hadith
*Fatima Zahra—the youngest daughter of Muhammad and Khadijah. Considered by Muslims to be the greatest woman of all times.
*Fatimah bint Qays—Famous scholar
*Khadijah—First convert to Islam, first wife of Muhammad
*Nusaibah bint Ka'b al-Ansariyah—Famous warrior
*Rabi'a al-'Adawiyya—Important figure in the development of Sufism
*Rabia—Most important of the early Sufi poets
*Sayyida Nafisa—Scholar
*Sumayyah bint Khabbab—First martyr of Islam, seventh convert to it
*Ukhtul Mazni—Highly placed scholar of Islamic jurisprudence
*Umm Ad Darda—Expert theologian
*Umm 'Atiyyah—Scholar of Islamic jurisprudence
*Umm Salamah—Narrator of Hadith
*Umm Salim—Famous scholar
*Umrah Bint Abdu Rahman—Eminent theologian and famous scholar

Jainism

The status of women in Jainism differs between the two main sects, Digambar and Svetambara. Jainism prohibits women from appearing naked; because of this, Digambaras, who consider renunciation of clothes essential to Moksha, say that they cannot attain Moksha. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/jainism/beliefs/women.shtml BBC - Religion & Ethics - Women in Jainism] ] Svetambaras, who allow sadhus to wear clothes, believe that women can attain Moksha. Some Jains consider women to be inherently inferior, but most do not. Nevertheless, there are more Svetambara sadhvis than sadhus and women have always been influential in the Jain religion. [http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/jainism/faith/women/index.html The Role of Women - Victoria and Albert Museum] ]

*Mallinath, the 19th Jain Tirthankar; she was female according to Svetambara Jains, male according to Digambara Jains.
*Marudevi, the mother of Rishabha
*Trishala, the mother of Mahavira

Judaism

Prominent women of the Old Testament
*Deborah, Hebrew prophetess, fourth judge
*Esther, Jewish heroine associated with the feast of Purim
*Huldah, the prophetess who validated the scroll found in the Temple (thought by many to be the book of Deuteronomy)
*Miriam, Prophetess

ikhism

*Bibi Bhani
*Bibi Nanaki
*Mai Bhago
*Mata Gujri
*Mata Jitoji
*Mata Khivi
*Mata Sahib Kaur
*Mata Sundri

Taoism

One of the Taoist Eight Immortals, Ho Hsien-ku, is a woman. Additionally, Sun Bu'er was a famous female Taoist master in the 12th Century. Her work "Secret Book on the Inner Elixir (as Transmitted by the Immortal Sun Bu'er)" discussed some of the particularities of female Inner Elixir (Neidan) cultivation. Taoist nuns usually have equal status with Taoist monks.
*Wei Huacun—A founder of the Shangqing School of Taoism.

Other religions

*Annie Besant—Theosophist influential in the Indian Independence Movement
*Madame Blavatsky—contributed to the development and promotion of theosophy
*Nakayama Miki—founder of Tenrikyo
*Nirmala Srivastava founder and self-proclaimed goddess of Sahaja Yoga

piritual mediums

*Helen Schucman who claimed to have scribed A Course in Miracles
*Jane Roberts who claimed to have channeled Seth
*Judy Z. Knight (born Judith Darlene Hampton), who claims to have channeled Ramtha
*Alice Auma of the Holy Spirit Movement

ee also

*Blu Greenberg
*Women in Christianity
*God and gender
*Goddess
*Islamic feminism
*Jewish feminism
*Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance
*List of female mystics
*Nuns
*Ordination of women
*Feminist theology
*Role of women in Judaism
*Sacred prostitution
*Vestal virgin
*When God Was a Woman
*Women as imams
*Women in Muslim societies

References

#Joan Breton Connelly "Portrait of a Priestess: Women and Ritual in Ancient Greece" Princeton University Press March 2007
#Evangelisti Silvia Evangelisti Nuns: A History of Convent Life, OUP 2007
# Pechilis, Karen. "The Graceful Guru: Hindu Female Gurus in India and the United States" ISBN 0–19–514538–0
# Shattuck, Cybelle and Lewis, Nancy D. "The Pocket Idiot's Guide to Hinduism" (2002). ISBN 0–02–864482–4
#http://www.rhul.ac.uk/bedford-centre/history-women-religious/ being the webpage of the History of Women Religious of Britain and Ireland, which has a number of entries on the links page.