Estrogen

Estrogen
Estriol. Note two hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to the D ring (rightmost ring).
Estradiol. Note one hydroxyl group attached to the D ring. The 'di' refers both to this hydroxyl and the one on the A ring (leftmost).
Estrone. Note the ketone (=O) group attached to the D ring.

Estrogens (AmE), oestrogens (BE), or œstrogens, are a group of compounds named for their importance in the estrous cycle of humans and other animals. They are the primary female sex hormones. Natural estrogens are steroid hormones, while some synthetic ones are non-steroidal. Their name comes from the Greek words estrus/οίστρος = sexual desire + gen/γόνο = to generate.

Estrogens are synthesized in all vertebrates[1] as well as some insects.[2] Their presence in both vertebrates and insects suggests that estrogenic sex hormones have an ancient evolutionary history.

Estrogens are used as part of some oral contraceptives, in estrogen replacement therapy for postmenopausal women, and in hormone replacement therapy for trans women.

Like all steroid hormones, estrogens readily diffuse across the cell membrane. Once inside the cell, they bind to and activate estrogen receptors which in turn modulate the expression of many genes.[3] Additionally, estrogens have been shown to activate a G protein-coupled receptor, GPR30.[4]

Contents

Types

Steroidal

The three major naturally occurring estrogens in women are estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3).

Estrone is produced during menopause, estradiol is the predominant form in nonpregnant females, and estriol is the primary estrogen of pregnancy. In the body these are all produced from androgens through actions of enzymes.[citation needed]

Premarin, a commonly prescribed estrogenic drug, contains the steroidal estrogens equilin and equilenin. There are oestradiol skin patches such as Estraderm (the original brand, introduced in the late 1980s) that offer a completely natural alternative. (A skin patch rather than pill also has the advantage of direct transmission into the blood stream without going through the liver.)[citation needed]

Reference ranges for the blood content of estradiol, the primary type of estrogen, during the menstrual cycle.[5]

Nonsteroidal

A range of synthetic and natural substances have been identified that also possess estrogenic activity.[6]

  • Synthetic substances of this kind are known as xenoestrogens.
  • Plant products with estrogenic activity are called phytoestrogens.
  • Those produced by fungi are known as mycoestrogens.

Unlike estrogens produced by mammals, these substances are not necessarily steroids.

Biosynthesis

Steroidogenesis, showing estrogens at bottom right as in pink triangle.

Estrogens are produced primarily by developing follicles in the ovaries, the corpus luteum, and the placenta. Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates the production of estrogen in the ovaries. Some estrogens are also produced in smaller amounts by other tissues such as the liver, adrenal glands, and the breasts. These secondary sources of estrogens are especially important in postmenopausal women. Fat cells also produce estrogen,[7] potentially the reason why being underweight or overweight are risk factors for infertility.[8]

In females, synthesis of estrogens starts in theca interna cells in the ovary, by the synthesis of androstenedione from cholesterol. Androstenedione is a substance of moderate androgenic activity. This compound crosses the basal membrane into the surrounding granulosa cells, where it is converted to oestrone or oestradiol, either immediately or through testosterone. The conversion of testosterone to oestradiol, and of androstenedione to oestrone, is catalyzed by the enzyme aromatase.

Oestradiol levels vary through the menstrual cycle, with levels highest just before ovulation.

Function

The actions of estrogen are mediated by the Estrogen receptor (ER), a dimeric nuclear protein that binds to DNA and controls gene expression. Like other steroid hormones, estrogen enters passively into the cell where it binds to and activates the estrogen receptor. The estrogen:ER complex binds to specific DNA sequences called a Hormone response element to activate the transcription of some 137 ER-regulated genes, of which 89 are direct target genes. [9] Since estrogen enters all cells, its action are dependent on the presence of the ER in the cell. The ER is expressed in specific tissues including the ovary, uterus and breast.

While estrogens are present in both men and women, they are usually present at significantly higher levels in women of reproductive age. They promote the development of female secondary sexual characteristics, such as breasts, and are also involved in the thickening of the endometrium and other aspects of regulating the menstrual cycle. In males, estrogen regulates certain functions of the reproductive system important to the maturation of sperm[10][11][12] and may be necessary for a healthy libido.[13][14] Furthermore, there are several other structural changes induced by estrogen in addition to other functions.

Sexual desire is dependent on androgen levels rather than estrogen levels.[16]

Fetal development

In mice, estrogens (which are locally aromatized from androgens in the brain) play an important role in psychosexual differentiation, for example, by masculinizing territorial behavior;[17] the same is not true in humans.[18] In humans, the masculinizing effects of prenatal androgens on behavior (and other tissues, with the possible exception of effects on bone) appear to act exclusively through the androgen receptor.[19] As a result, the utility of rodent models for studying human psychosexual differentiation has been questioned.[20]

Mental health

Estrogen is considered to play a significant role in women’s mental health. Sudden estrogen withdrawal, fluctuating estrogen, and periods of sustained estrogen low levels correlates with significant mood lowering. Clinical recovery from postpartum, perimenopause, and postmenopause depression has been shown to be effective after levels of estrogen were stabilized and/or restored.[21][22]

Low estrogen levels in male lab mice may be one cause of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD). When estrogen levels were raised through the increased activity of the enzyme aromatase in male lab mice, OCD rituals were dramatically decreased. Hypothalamic protein levels in the gene COMT are enhanced by increasing estrogen levels which is believed to return mice that displayed OCD rituals to normal activity. Aromatase deficiency is ultimately suspected which is involved in the synthesis of estrogen in humans and has therapeutic implications in humans having obsessive-compulsive disorder.[23]

Medical applications

Oral contraceptives

Since estrogen circulating in the blood can negatively feed-back to reduce circulating levels of FSH and LH, most oral contraceptives contain a synthetic estrogen, along with a synthetic progestin. Even in men, the major hormone involved in LH feedback is estradiol, not testosterone.

Hormone replacement therapy

As more fully discussed in the article on Hormone replacement therapy, estrogen and other hormones are given to postmenopausal women in order to prevent osteoporosis as well as treat the symptoms of menopause such as hot flushes, vaginal dryness, urinary stress incontinence, chilly sensations, dizziness, fatigue, irritability, and sweating. Fractures of the spine, wrist, and hips decrease by 50-70% and spinal bone density increases by ~5% in those women treated with estrogen within 3 years of the onset of menopause and for 5–10 years thereafter.

Before the specific dangers of conjugated equine estrogens were well understood, standard therapy was 0.625 mg/day of conjugated equine estrogens (such as Premarin). There are, however, risks associated with conjugated equine estrogen therapy. Among the older postmenopausal women studied as part of the Women's Health Initiative (WHI), an orally administered conjugated equine estrogen supplement was found to be associated with an increased risk of dangerous blood clotting. The WHI studies used one type of estrogen supplement, a high oral dose of conjugated equine estrogens (Premarin alone and with medroxyprogesterone acetate as PremPro).[24]

In a study by the NIH, esterified estrogens were not proven to pose the same risks to health as conjugated equine estrogens. Hormone replacement therapy has favorable effects on serum cholesterol levels, and when initiated immediately upon menopause may reduce the incidence of cardiovascular disease, although this hypothesis has yet to be tested in randomized trials. Estrogen appears to have a protector effect on atherosclerosis : it lowers LDL and triglycerides, it raises HDL levels and has endothelial vasodilatation properties plus an anti-inflammatory component.

Research is underway to determine if risks of estrogen supplement use are the same for all methods of delivery. In particular, estrogen applied topically may have a different spectrum of side-effects than when administered orally,[25] and transdermal estrogens do not affect clotting as they are absorbed directly into the systemic circulation, avoiding first-pass metabolism in the liver. This route of administration is thus preferred in women with a history of thrombo-embolic disease.

Estrogen is also used in the therapy of vaginal atrophy, hypoestrogenism (as a result of hypogonadism, castration, or primary ovarian failure), amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, and oligomenorrhea. Estrogens can also be used to suppress lactation after child birth.

Breast cancer

About 80% of breast cancers, once established, rely on supplies of the hormone estrogen to grow: they are known as hormone-sensitive or hormone-receptor-positive cancers. Suppression of production of estrogen in the body is a treatment for these cancers.

Recently researchers have discovered that the common table mushroom has anti-aromatase[26] properties and therefore possible anti-estrogen activity. Clinical trials have begun in the United States looking into whether the table mushroom can prevent breast cancer in people.[27] A recent study has highlighted the importance of this research. In 2009, a case-control study of the eating habits of 2,018 women, revealed that women who consumed mushrooms had an approximately 50% lower incidence of breast cancer. Women who consumed mushrooms and green tea had a 90% lower incidence of breast cancer.[28]

Hormone-receptor-positive breast cancers are treated with drugs which suppress production of estrogen in the body.[29] This technique, in the context of treatment of breast cancer, is known variously as hormonal therapy, hormone therapy, or anti-estrogen therapy (not to be confused with hormone replacement therapy). Certain foods such as soy may also suppress the proliferative effects of estrogen and are used as an alternative to hormone therapy.[30]

Prostate cancer

Under certain circumstances, estrogen may also be used in males for treatment of prostate cancer.[31]

Miscellaneous

In humans and mice, estrogen promotes wound healing.[32]

At one time, estrogen was used to induce growth attenuation in tall girls.[33] Recently, estrogen-induced growth attenuation was used as part of the controversial Ashley Treatment to keep a developmentally disabled girl from growing to adult size.[34]

Most recently, estrogen has been used in experimental research as a way to treat patients suffering from bulimia nervosa, in addition to Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, which is the established standard for treatment in bulimia cases. The estrogen research hypothesizes that the disease may be linked to a hormonal imbalance in the brain.[35]

Estrogen has also been used in studies which indicate that it may be an effective drug for use in the treatment of traumatic liver injury.[36]

Health risks and warning labels

Hyperestrogenemia (elevated levels of estrogen) may be a result of exogenous administration of estrogen or estrogen-like substances, or may be a result of physiologic conditions such as pregnancy. Any of these causes is linked with an increase in the risk of thrombosis.[37]

The estrogen-alone substudy of the WHI reported an increased risk of stroke and deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in postmenopausal women 50 years of age or older and an increased risk of dementia in postmenopausal women 65 years of age or older using 0.625 mg of Premarin conjugated equine estrogens (CEE). The estrogen-plus-progestin substudy of the WHI reported an increased risk of myocardial infarction, stroke, invasive breast cancer, pulmonary emboli and DVT in postmenopausal women 50 years of age or older and an increased risk of dementia in postmenopausal women 65 years of age or older using PremPro, which is 0.625 mg of CEE with 2.5 mg of the progestin medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA).[38][39][40]

The labeling of estrogen-only products in the U.S. includes a boxed warning that unopposed estrogen (without progestagen) therapy increases the risk of endometrial cancer. Based on a review of data from the WHI, on January 8, 2003 the FDA changed the labeling of all estrogen and estrogen with progestin products for use by postmenopausal women to include a new boxed warning about cardiovascular and other risks.

Cosmetics

Some hair shampoos on the market include estrogens and placental extracts; others contain phytoestrogens. There are case reports of young children developing breasts after exposure to these shampoos.[41] On September 9, 1993, the FDA determined that not all topically applied hormone-containing drug products for OTC human use are generally recognized as safe and effective and are misbranded. An accompanying proposed rule deals with cosmetics, concluding that any use of natural estrogens in a cosmetic product makes the product an unapproved new drug and that any cosmetic using the term "hormone" in the text of its labeling or in its ingredient statement makes an implied drug claim, subjecting such a product to regulatory action.[42]

In addition to being considered misbranded drugs, products claiming to contain placental extract may also be deemed to be misbranded cosmetics if the extract has been prepared from placentas from which the hormones and other biologically active substances have been removed and the extracted substance consists principally of protein. The FDA recommends that this substance be identified by a name other than "placental extract" and describing its composition more accurately because consumers associate the name "placental extract" with a therapeutic use of some biological activity.[42]

History

In 1929 Adolf Butenandt and Edward Adelbert Doisy independently isolated and determined the structure of estrogen.[43] Thereafter, the market for hormonal drug research opened up.

The “first orally effective estrogen”, Emmenin, derived from the late-pregnancy urine of Canadian women, was introduced in 1930 by Collip and Ayerst Laboratories. Estrogens are not water-soluble and cannot be given orally, but the urine was found to contain estriol glucuronide which is water soluble and becomes active in the body after hydrolization.

Scientists continued to search for new sources of estrogen because of concerns associated with the practicality of introducing the drug into the market. At the same time, a German pharmaceutical drug company, formulated a similar product as Emmenin that was introduced to German women to treat menopausal symptoms.

In 1938, British scientists obtained a patent on a newly formulated nonsteroidal estrogen, diethylstilbestrol (DES), that was cheaper and more powerful than the previously manufactured estrogens. Soon after, concerns over the side effects of DES were raised in scientific journals while the drug manufacturers came together to lobby for governmental approval of DES. It was only until 1941 when estrogen therapy was finally approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for the treatment of menopausal symptoms.[44]

Environmental effects

Estrogens are among the wide range of endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs) because they have high estrogenic potency. When this specific EDC makes its way into the environment it may cause male reproductive dysfunction to wildlife.[45] The estrogen excreted from farm animals makes its way into fresh water systems.[46] During the germination period of reproduction the fish are exposed to low levels of estrogen which may cause reproductive dysfunction to male fish.[47][48]

See also

References

Notes
  1. ^ Ryan KJ (August 1982). "Biochemistry of aromatase: significance to female reproductive physiology". Cancer Res. 42 (8 Suppl): 3342s–3344s. PMID 7083198. 
  2. ^ Mechoulam R, Brueggemeier RW, Denlinger DL (September 2005). "Estrogens in insects". Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences 40 (9): 942–944. doi:10.1007/BF01946450. http://www.springerlink.com/content/tr77034552r222m1/fulltext.pdf. 
  3. ^ Whitehead SA, Nussey S (2001). Endocrinology: an integrated approach. Oxford: BIOS: Taylor & Francis. ISBN 1-85996-252-1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=endocrin.TOC&depth=10. 
  4. ^ Prossnitz ER, Arterburn JB, Sklar LA (2007). "GPR30: A G protein-coupled receptor for estrogen". Mol. Cell. Endocrinol. 265-266: 138–42. doi:10.1016/j.mce.2006.12.010. PMC 1847610. PMID 17222505. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1847610. 
  5. ^ References and further description of values are given in image page in Wikimedia Commons at Commons:File:Estradiol during menstrual cycle.png.
  6. ^ Fang H, Tong W, Shi LM, Blair R, Perkins R, Branham W, Hass BS, Xie Q, Dial SL, Moland CL, Sheehan DM (2001). "Structure-activity relationships for a large diverse set of natural, synthetic, and environmental estrogens". Chem. Res. Toxicol. 14 (3): 280–94. doi:10.1021/tx000208y. PMID 11258977. 
  7. ^ Nelson LR, Bulun SE (September 2001). "Estrogen production and action". J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 45 (3 Suppl): S116–24. doi:10.1067/mjd.2001.117432. PMID 11511861. 
  8. ^ FERTILITY FACT > Female Risks By the American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM). Retrieved on Jan 4, 2009
  9. ^ TI - Discovery of estrogen receptor alpha target genes and response elements in breast tumor cells. FAU - Lin, Chin-Yo, SO - Genome Biol. 2004;5(9):R66. Epub 2004 Aug 12. PMID- 15345050
  10. ^ Hess RA, Bunick D, Lee KH, Bahr J, Taylor JA, Korach KS, Lubahn DB (1997). "A role for estrogens in the male reproductive system". Nature 390 (6659): 447–8. doi:10.1038/37352. PMID 9393999. 
  11. ^ J. Raloff (1997-12-06). "Science News Online (12/6/97): Estrogen's Emerging Manly Alter Ego". Science News. http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc97/12_6_97/fob1.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  12. ^ "Science Blog -- Estrogen Linked To Sperm Count, Male Fertility". Science Blog. http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1997/B/199701564.html. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  13. ^ Hill RA, Pompolo S, Jones ME, Simpson ER, Boon WC (2004). "Estrogen deficiency leads to apoptosis in dopaminergic neurons in the medial preoptic area and arcuate nucleus of male mice". Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 27 (4): 466–76. doi:10.1016/j.mcn.2004.04.012. PMID 15555924. 
  14. ^ Ian Muchamore (2004-07-19). "Prince Henry's Institute - Media Release - Male sex drive linked to estrogen". Prince Henry's Institute. http://www.phimr.monash.edu.au/news/media_releases/estrogen_vital_for_male_sex_drive.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  15. ^ Massaro D, Massaro GD (December 2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". Am. J. Physiol. Lung Cell Mol. Physiol. 287 (6): L1154–9. doi:10.1152/ajplung.00228.2004. PMID 15298854. 
  16. ^ Warnock JK, Swanson SG, Borel RW, Zipfel LM, Brennan JJ (2005). "Combined esterified estrogens and methyltestosterone versus esterified estrogens alone in the treatment of loss of sexual interest in surgically menopausal women". Menopause 12 (4): 359–60. doi:10.1097/01.GME.0000153933.50860.FD. PMID 16037752. 
  17. ^ Wu MV, Manoli DS, Fraser EJ, Coats JK, Tollkuhn J, Honda S, Harada N, Shah NM (October 2009). "Estrogen masculinizes neural pathways and sex-specific behaviors". Cell 139 (1): 61–72. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2009.07.036. PMC 2851224. PMID 19804754. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2851224. 
  18. ^ Rochira V, Carani C (October 2009). "Aromatase deficiency in men: a clinical perspective". Nat Rev Endocrinol 5 (10): 559–68. doi:10.1038/nrendo.2009.176. PMID 19707181. 
  19. ^ Wilson JD (September 2001). "Androgens, androgen receptors, and male gender role behavior". Horm Behav 40 (2): 358–66. doi:10.1006/hbeh.2001.1684. PMID 11534997. 
  20. ^ Baum MJ (November 2006). "Mammalian animal models of psychosexual differentiation: when is 'translation' to the human situation possible?". Horm Behav 50 (4): 579–88. doi:10.1016/j.yhbeh.2006.06.003. PMID 16876166. 
  21. ^ Douma, S.L, Husband, C., O’Donnell, M.E., Barwin, B.N., Woodend A.K. (2005). "Estrogen-related Mood Disorders Reproductive Life Cycle Factors". Advances in Nursing Science 28 (4): 364–375. PMID 16292022. 
  22. ^ Lasiuk, GC and Hegadoren, KM (2007). "The Effects of Estradiol on Central Serotonergic Systems and Its Relationship to Mood in Women". Biological Research for Nursing (2007), 9 (2): 147–160. doi:10.1177/1099800407305600. PMID 17909167. 
  23. ^ Hill, Rachel A., McLnnes, Kerry J., Cong, Emily C.H., Jones, Margaret E.E., Simpson, Evan R. (2007). "Estrogen deficient male mice develop Compulsive Behavior". Biological Psychiatry 61 (3): 359. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2006.01.012. PMID 16566897. 
  24. ^ "NIH - Menopausal Hormone Therapy Information". National Institutes of Health. 2007-08-27. http://www.nih.gov/PHTindex.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  25. ^ Menon DV, Vongpatanasin W (2006). "Effects of transdermal estrogen replacement therapy on cardiovascular risk factors". Treat Endocrinol 5 (1): 37–51. doi:10.2165/00024677-200605010-00005. PMID 16396517. 
  26. ^ Chen, S., Y.C. Kao (1997). "Binding characteristics of aromatase inhibitors and phytoestrogens to human aromatase.". The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (City of Hope, Duarte, California) 61 (3–6): 107–115. doi:10.1016/S0960-0760(97)80001-5. PMID 9365179 
  27. ^ . http://www.cityofhope.org/about/publications/eHope/2008-vol-7-num-7-july-29/Pages/a-salad-fixin-with-medical-benefits.aspx. 
  28. ^ Zhang, M; Huang, J; Xie, X; Holman, CD (2009). "Dietary intakes of mushrooms and green tea combine to reduce the risk of breast cancer in Chinese women". International Journal of Cancer (International Journal of Cancer (Online)) 124 (6): 1404–1408. doi:10.1002/ijc.24047. PMID 19048616 
  29. ^ "Hormonal Therapy". breastcancer.org. 2007-07-26. http://www.breastcancer.org/tre_sys_hrt_idx.html. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  30. ^ Kurzer MS (2002). "Hormonal effects of soy in premenopausal women and men". J. Nutr. 132 (3): 570S–573S. PMID 11880595. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/132/3/570S. 
  31. ^ Oh WK (2002). "The evolving role of estrogen therapy in prostate cancer" ([dead link]search). Clin Genitourinary Cancer 1 (2): 81–9. doi:10.3816/CGC.2002.n.009. PMID 15046698. http://www.cigjournals.com/CIG/c.abs/clinical-genitourinary-cancer/volume1/issue2/article792. 
  32. ^ Oh DM, Phillips, TJ (2006). "Sex Hormones and Wound Healing". Wounds 18 (1): 8–18. http://www.woundsresearch.com/article/5190. 
  33. ^ Lee JM, Howell JD (2006). "Tall girls: the social shaping of a medical therapy". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 160 (10): 1077–8. doi:10.1001/archpedi.160.10.1035. PMID 17018462. 
  34. ^ Gunther DF, Diekema DS (2006). "Attenuating growth in children with profound developmental disability: a new approach to an old dilemma". Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 160 (10): 1013–7. doi:10.1001/archpedi.160.10.1013. PMID 17018459. 
  35. ^ Gunilla Andersson (2007-01-09). "Bulimia May Result from Hormonal Imbalance". Karolinska Institutet. http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=130&a=22684&l=en&newsdep=130. Retrieved 2008-03-04. 
  36. ^ Hsieh YC, Yu HP, Frink M, Suzuki T, Choudhry MA, Schwacha MG, Chaudry IH (2007). "G protein-coupled receptor 30-dependent protein kinase A pathway is critical in nongenomic effects of estrogen in attenuating liver injury after trauma-hemorrhage". Am. J. Pathol. 170 (4): 1210–8. doi:10.2353/ajpath.2007.060883. PMC 1829455. PMID 17392161. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1829455. 
  37. ^ Chapter 4 in: Mitchell, Richard Sheppard; Kumar, Vinay; Abbas, Abul K.; Fausto, Nelson (2007). Robbins Basic Pathology: With STUDENT CONSULT Online Access. Philadelphia: Saunders. ISBN 1-4160-2973-7.  8th edition.
  38. ^ FDA (2003, January 8). "FDA Approves New Labels for Estrogen and Estrogen with Progestin Therapies for Postmenopausal Women Following Review of Women's Health Initiative Data". Archived from the original on 2007-12-21. http://web.archive.org/web/20071221093608/http://www.fda.gov/bbs/topics/NEWS/2003/NEW00863.html. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  39. ^ Kolata, Gina (2003, January 9). "F.D.A. Orders Warning on All Estrogen Labels". The New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9C00E0DD103EF93AA35752C0A9659C8B63. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  40. ^ NLM (2006, April 1). "IMPORTANT WARNING". Drug Information: Estrogen. MedlinePlus. Archived from the original on October 9, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20061009223122/http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/medmaster/a682922.html. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  41. ^ Sanghavi, DM (October 17, 2006). "Preschool Puberty, and a Search for the Causes". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/17/science/17puberty.html. Retrieved 2008-06-04 
  42. ^ a b FDA (1995, February). "Products containing estrogenic hormones, placental extract or vitamins". Guide to Inspections of Cosmetic Product Manufacturers. Archived from the original on 2007-10-14. http://web.archive.org/web/20071014014542/http://www.fda.gov/ora/inspect_ref/igs/cosmet.html. Retrieved 2006-10-24. 
  43. ^ Tata JR (2005). "One hundred years of hormones". EMBO Rep. 6 (6): 490–6. doi:10.1038/sj.embor.7400444. PMC 1369102. PMID 15940278. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1369102. 
  44. ^ Rothenberg, Carla J. (2005-04-25). "The Rise and Fall of Estrogen Therapy: The History of HRT" (PDF). http://leda.law.harvard.edu/leda/data/711/Rothenberg05.pdf. Retrieved 2006-10-27. 
  45. ^ Wang S, Huang W, Fang G, Zhang Y, Qiao H (2008). "Analysis of steroidal estrogen residues in food and environmental samples". International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry 88 (1): 1–25. doi:10.1080/03067310701597293. 
  46. ^ Wise A, O'Brien K, Woodruff T (October 2010). "Are Oral Contraceptives a Significant Contributor to the Estrogenicity of Drinking Water?". Environ Sci Technol 45 (1): 101026133329091. doi:10.1021/es1014482. PMID 20977246. Lay summary – Chemical & Engineering News. 
  47. ^ Liney KE, Jobling S, Shears JA, Simpson P, Tyler CR (October 2005). "Assessing the sensitivity of different life stages for sexual disruption in roach (Rutilus rutilus) exposed to effluents from wastewater treatment works". Environ. Health Perspect. 113 (10): 1299–307. doi:10.1289/ehp.7921. PMC 1281270. PMID 16203238. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1281270. 
  48. ^ Jobling S, Williams R, Johnson A, Taylor A, Gross-Sorokin M, Nolan M, Tyler CR, van Aerle R, Santos E, Brighty G (April 2006). "Predicted exposures to steroid estrogens in U.K. rivers correlate with widespread sexual disruption in wild fish populations". Environ. Health Perspect. 114 Suppl 1: 32–9. PMC 1874167. PMID 16818244. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=1874167. 

External links



Wikimedia Foundation. 2010.

Игры ⚽ Поможем сделать НИР

Look at other dictionaries:

  • Estrogen — is a female hormone produced by the ovaries. Estrogen deficiency can lead to osteoporosis. Estrogen therapy preparations include: esterified estrogens esterified estrogens and methyltestosterone estradiol estrogens conjugated and… …   Medical dictionary

  • estrogen — ESTROGÉN, estrogene, s.n. Nume generic dat hormonilor de tipul foliculinei, care provoacă fenomene caracteristice estrului. – Din fr. oestrogène. Trimis de LauraGellner, 13.09.2007. Sursa: DEX 98  estrogén s. n., pl. estrogéne Trimis de siveco,… …   Dicționar Român

  • estrogen — coined 1927 from ESTRUS (Cf. estrus) + GEN (Cf. gen). So called for the hormone s ability to produce estrus …   Etymology dictionary

  • estrogen — (Brit. oestrogen) ► NOUN ▪ any of a group of steroid hormones which promote the development and maintenance of female characteristics of the body. ORIGIN from OESTRUS(Cf. ↑oestrus) …   English terms dictionary

  • estrogen — [es′trə jən, es′trəjen΄] n. [< ESTRUS + GEN] any of several female sex hormones or synthetic compounds that cause estrus …   English World dictionary

  • Estrogen — Estrogene (standardsprachlich: Östrogene), auch Follikelhormone genannt, sind die wichtigsten weiblichen Sexualhormone aus der Klasse der Steroidhormone. Sie werden hauptsächlich in den Eierstöcken (Ovarien) in Follikel und Gelbkörper, zu einem… …   Deutsch Wikipedia

  • estrogen — /es treuh jeuhn/, n. Biochem. any of several major female sex hormones produced primarily by the ovarian follicles of female mammals, capable of inducing estrus, developing and maintaining secondary female sex characteristics, and preparing the… …   Universalium

  • estrogen — estrogenas statusas T sritis chemija apibrėžtis Steroidinis moteriškasis lytinis hormonas. atitikmenys: angl. estrogen rus. эстроген …   Chemijos terminų aiškinamasis žodynas

  • estrogen — US var. of OESTROGEN. * * * estrogen, estrogenic, estrone, estrous varr. œstrogen, etc …   Useful english dictionary

  • Estrogen receptor alpha — Estrogen receptor 1 PDB rendering based on 1a52 …   Wikipedia

Share the article and excerpts

Direct link
Do a right-click on the link above
and select “Copy Link”