China Hands

The term China Hand originally referred to 19th-century merchants in the treaty ports of China, but evolved to reflect anyone with expert knowledge of the language, culture, and people of China. In the 1940s, the term "China Hands" came to refer to a group of American diplomats, journalists, and soldiers who were known for their knowledge of China and influence on American policy before, during, and after World War II. In Mandariin Chinese, "China hand" would be translated as Zhong guo tong (simplified Chinese: 中国通; traditional Chinese: 中國通; pinyin: Zhōng gúo tōng; literally "China expert").

The men who "lost" China

The China Hands during World War II were Foreign Service Officers of the United States Department of State, most of whom had experience in China, some of them going back to the 1920s. Since the general expectation was that the war would continue for perhaps another two years and that the invasion of Japan would be based in China, General Joseph Stilwell determined that American interest required liaison with the considerable military force of the communists. At his behest, the Dixie Mission was sent to Yan'an in July 1944. Colonel David Barrett and John S. Service reported favorably on the strength and capabilities of the Chinese Communist Party compared with the Chinese Nationalists. This view was motivated not by sympathy with communism as a political or economic system, but with the view that Chinese communists were more popular and militarily effective than the Nationalists, who were wracked with corruption and incompetence. Communist leaders Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai welcomed the Americans, and Mao gave Service an extensive interview expressing his desire for good relations and his eagerness for American aid. Many China Hands argued that it would be in American national interest to work with the communists if, as many China experts correctly expected, they gained power. Theodore White, correspondent for Time magazine was among the many journalists who visited Yan'an and described the effectiveness of communist political mobilization. This view was opposed by the new U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick Hurley. Hurley, a Republican recruited by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to promote a bipartisan China policy, initially felt there was no more difference between the Chinese communists and Nationalists than between the Democrats and Republicans in his home state of Oklahoma, but wanted to form a coalition government led by Chiang Kai-shek. He accused David Barrett Foreign Service Officers such as Service, Davies, and John Emmerson of disloyalty and had them removed from China.^[1]

After the sudden surrender of Japan in 1945 and the onset of the Cold War, the Communists and the Nationalists locked in a Civil War. The China Hand view was propounded by Harvard professor John Fairbank in his The United States and China (1948) and in the bestselling book Thunder Out of China, published in 1946 by Theodore White and Annalee Jacobee. They hoped that American policy could encourage Chinese nationalism and lead to independence from Soviet communism. Patrick Hurley testified to Congress that the China Hands had subverted his mission and General Albert Wedemeyer blamed the State Department for failing to act. When the Chinese Communists declared victory in 1949, an immediate outcry by anti-communists asked "Who lost China?" John T. Flynn, Louis F. Budenz, Freda Utley, none of whom had any professional expertise in Chinese history or politics, were among the many who charged that China Hands had undermined Chiang Kai-shek, misled the American public and lost China either through naive ignorance of the true nature of Marxism or even allegiance to the Soviet Union. John Service, they pointed out, had admitted that before he went to Yan'an he had not read the basic texts of Marxism, and the other China Hands were no better informed. ^[2] Senator Joe McCarthy expanded these accusations to include Owen Lattimore, who had served as personal adviser to Chiang at the beginning of the war. These charges were developed in a series of congressional hearings, including those into the Institute of Pacific Relations. Foreign Service Officers O. Edmund Clubb, John Paton Davies, Jr., John Emmerson, John S. Service, and John Carter Vincent were forced out of the Foreign Service, while journalists such as Edgar Snow and Theodore White could not continue their careers in magazine journalism.^[3]

Not until the warming of relations between China and the United States in the 1970s did public opinion change towards the China Hands. Notable was the invitation to the surviving China Hands to testify to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations in 1971. The Chairman, Senator J. William Fulbright, remarked to John Paton Davies on how the China Hands who had "reported honestly about conditions were so persecuted because [they] were honest. This is a strange thing to occur in what is called a civilized country."^[4] John Service, reflecting on the low level of understanding of China in the American public at the time, joked that the loss of China had been blamed on "three Johns": John Service, John Fairbank, and "John" Kai-shek."

Recognized China Hands

• John Paton Davies, Jr.^[5]
• John S. Service^[6]
• John Carter Vincent^[7]
• O. Edmund Clubb^[8]
• Owen Lattimore^[9]
• John K. Fairbank^[10]
• Theodore White
• Raymond P. Ludden

See also

• John F. Melby

References

1. ^ Kahn, China Hands, pp 135-160.
2. ^ Gary North, The Red/Blue Map vs. Conspiracy Theories, LewRockwell.Com, November 8, 2004.
3. ^ Kahn, 212-243.
4. ^ Artes Liberales, University of Wisconsin article on Davies
5. ^ Kaufman, Michael T. (24 December 1999). "John Paton Davies, Diplomat Who Ran Afoul of McCarthy Over China, Dies at 91 John Paton Davies, Diplomat Who Ran Afoul of McCarthy Over China, Dies at 91". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE4DF1339F937A15751C1A96F958260. Retrieved 2008-08-15. "John Paton Davies, a leading diplomat who was among the old China hands driven from the State Department after Senator Joseph McCarthy questioned their loyalty and labeled them Communist sympathizers in the 1950s, died yesterday at his home in Asheville, N.C. He was 91." 
6. ^ Kifner, John (February 4, 1999). "John Service, a Purged 'China Hand,' Dies at 89". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9801E2DE1E38F937A35751C0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all. Retrieved 2008-08-13. "John S. Service, the first of the old China hands purged from the State Department in the McCarthy era, died yesterday in Oakland, Calif. He was 89." 
7. ^ "John Carter Vincent Dies. Specialist on China Policy. Diplomat Was Dismissed Despite Loyalty Report.". New York Times. December 5, 1972. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F30C16FD35591A7493C7A91789D95F468785F9. Retrieved 2008-08-15. "John Carter Vincent, a China specialist and former director of the State Department's Office of Far Eastern Affairs, died Sun- day ..." 
8. ^ "O. Edmund Clubb, 88, `China Hand,' Dies". Washington Post. May 12, 1989. http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-1190366.html. Retrieved 2008-08-13. "O. Edmund Clubb, 88, one of the dedicated and brilliant "China Hands" of the State Department's Foreign Service whose characters were attacked and careers destroyed by McCarthyism in the early 1950s, died May 9 at a hospital in New York City. He had Parkinson's disease." 
9. ^ "It takes one to know one". Salon.com. December 6, 1999. http://www.salon.com/news/col/horo/1999/12/06/weisberg/print.html. Retrieved 2008-08-13. "Weisberg still describes Lattimore as "the China hand absurdly named as the ..." 
10. ^ Gonzalez, David (September 16, 1991). "John K. Fairbank, China Scholar Of Wide Influence, Is Dead at 84". New York Times. http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D0CEEDD123EF935A2575AC0A967958260. Retrieved 2008-08-14. "John K. Fairbank, the Harvard history professor who was widely credited with creating the field of modern Chinese studies in the United States and was a leading advocate of diplomatic recognition of the People's Republic of China, died Saturday in Cambridge, Mass. He was 84 years old. He died of a heart attack, said Roderick MacFarquhar, a colleague." 

Further reading

• Kahn, E. J. (1975). The China Hands: America's Foreign Service Officers and What Befell Them. Viking. ISBN 0140043012. 
• Lilley, James R. and Lilley, Jeffrey (2004). China Hands: Nine Decades Of Adventure, Espionage, And Diplomacy In Asia. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1586481363. 
• Utley, Freda (1951). The China Story. Regnery Publishing. ISBN 0895262819. 

• Rand, Peter (1995). The China Hands. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 06848084470. 

• John T. Flynn, While You Slept: Our Tragedy in Asia and Who Made It (New York,: Devin-Adair Co., 1951).

• Anthony Kubek, How the Far East Was Lost: American Policy and the Creation of Communist China, 1941-1949 (Chicago: Regnery, 1963).

• David Halberstam, "The Coldest Winter" (2007)