- Hinduism and other religions
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In the field of comparative religion, some have sought to discover similarities between Hinduism and other religions.
Further information: Indian religions and Eastern religionsHinduism has a history of co-existence with Buddhism and Jainism (the Shramana traditions), and more recently, with Sikhism, within the Indian subcontinent. Consequently, these religious traditions share a number terms and concepts such as dharma and karma.
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Hinduism and Christianity
Further information: Jesus in IndiaThere has been some debate on historical connections between Christianity and Indian religion, although this has focussed on Buddhism and Christianity (via Greco-Buddhism) more than on Hinduism proper. While it is well known that a number of Indian sages visited Constantinople in Classical Antiquity, claims of significant influence in either direction failed to gain wide acceptance. The study of Jesus Christ in comparative mythology has pointed to Krishna in particular. "Krishnology" is a term coined to express theological parallels between Krishnaism and the dogmas of Christology in Christianity. There is some pseudo-scholarly literature postulating that Jesus travelled to India after surviving his crucifixion, beginning with Nicolas Notovitch's La vie Inconnue du Jesus Christ (1894) and Jesus in India (1899, 1908, see Roza Bal, Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam) and revived in 1980s esotericism (Holger Kersten 1981, 1983).
There also exist notable similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti of Hinduism, whose members -- Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva -- are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman, or Godhead. In Hinduism (also in Jainism and Sikhism), the concept of moksha is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, as well as Christianity's doctrine of salvation.
Swami Tripurari states:
... in theory the sinners of the world are the beneficiaries of Christ’s sacrifice, but it is God the father for whose pleasure Christ underwent the crucifixion, even when the father’s joy in this scenario lies in the salvation of sinners. Christ represents the intermediary between God and humanity, and his life aptly illustrates the fact that it is sacrifice by which we come to meet our maker. Thus in Christ the Divine teaches us “the way” more than he does the goal. The Christ conception represents “the way” in the sense that the way is sacrifice, out of which love arises. The Krishna conception represents that for which we not only should, but must sacrifice, compelled by the Godhead’s irresistible attributes, etc. depicted therein.[1]
Vedanta from the 19th century has influenced some Christian thinkers (See also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths).
Further information: Christianity in IndiaApart from the Goa Inquisition, there is no history of forced conversion of Hindus to Christianity. The declaration Nostra Aetate officially established inter-religious dialogue between Catholics and Hindus. It has promoted common values between religions. There are over 17.3 million Catholics in India, which represents less than 2% of the total population and is the largest Christian Church within India. (See also: Dalit theology.
Buddhism, Hinduism and Christianity differ on fundamental beliefs on heaven, hell and reincarnation, to name a few. From the Hindu perspective, heaven (Sanskrit svarga) and hell (naraka) are temporary places, where every soul has to live, either for the good deeds done or for their sins committed. After a soul suffers its due punishment in hell, or after a soul has enjoyed enough in the heaven, it again enters the life-death cycle. There is no concept of 'permanent' hell. "Karma" cycle takes over. Permanent heaven or bliss is " Moksha".
However, there also exist significant similarities in Christian and Hindu theology, most notably in that both religions present a trinitarian view of God. The Holy Trinity of Christianity, consisting of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, is sometimes seen as roughly analogous to the Trimurti of Hinduism, whose members—Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva—are seen as the three principal manifestations of Brahman, or Godhead. Others may consider Brahma to be more similar to the demiurge of Christian gnosticism, in that he (at least initially) wrongly thought himself as the "Creator" and also as the highest or even the only god. In this case, the Hindu version of the Trinity could more accurately be seen as Vishnu (Father), Sankarshan or Shiva (Holy spirit), and Bhahma (Son; anologous to Christ). However there is a Parabrahma i.e. ultimate creator who has created this thrimurthi also.This view is further supported by the perceived intimate connection, or even identity (at least for a time in early and Eastern Christianity) between the feminine Sophia (wisdom) and the gender-neutral Holy Spirit (or, the Virgin Mary in Western Christianity). Sophia is also sometimes seen to represent the Image of God present in the human soul, which is saved from its fallen state by Christ the Logos—in which case there would be a strong similarity between Sophia and Sita in the Ramayana, who is saved by Hanuman (an incarnation of Shiva) from the demon king Ravana to be reunited with her husband Rama, representing God. In either case, Hindu or Christian, a trinity is generally not seen as polytheistic, but rather as representing three mysteriously distinct aspects of one personal God, or Ishvara.
In Hinduism (also in Jainism and Sikhism), the concept of moksha is akin to that of Buddhism's nirvana, as well as Christianity's doctrine of salvation. Most other religions of the world do not have such conceptions, except for that of fana' al-fana, or the experience of Wahdat-ul-Wujood in the Sufi aspect of Islam, and possibly some other examples.
Christian-Hindu relations are a mixed affair. On one hand, Hinduism's natural tendency has been to recognize the divine basis of various other religions, and to revere their founders and saintly practitioners. On the other hand, aggressive proselytism on the part of some Christian groups have led to incidents of anti-Christian rhetoric, often fueled by Hindu nationalist political parties. In Western countries, Vedanta has influenced some Christian thinkers, while others in the anti-cult movement have reacted against the activities of immigrant gurus and their followers. (See also: Pierre Johanns, Abhishiktananda, Bede Griffiths, Dalit theology.)
Hinduism and Islam
Main article: Hinduism and Islam- See also: Islam in India, Islamic conquest of South Asia
Hinduism and Islam, from the arrival of the Arabs as far back as the 8th century AD, has had a checkered history. During the Muslim conquests Islam gained many converts on the Indian sub-continent primarily from Hinduism or Buddhism ; the two dominant local religions through terror and intimidation by Islamic invaders. Prominent examples of these are Mahmud of Ghazni and the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb on either end of the timeline for Islamic rulers. Inter-marriage and immigration of Muslims from elsewhere is also led to the growth of Muslim populations in India. Muslims in India follow a caste system that divided the Arab-descended "Ashraf" Muslims and the "Ajlaf" converts, with the "Arzal" untouchables at the lowest rung[2][3][4][5][6] The term "Arzal" stands for "degraded" and the Arzal castes are further subdivided into Bhanar, Halalkhor, Hijra, Kasbi, Lalbegi, Maugta, Mehtar etc.[5][6][7]
Sheikh Muhammad was a Sufi saint who embraced the Hindu God Rama as his chosen bhakti ideal. Kabir wrote poetry and preached to the people, advocating a blend of philosophy and spiritual practices challenging the religious clergy of both Islam and Hinduism and claiming to be neither Hindu, nor Muslim.
The synergy between certain Sufis and Bhaktas in many regions of India led to Muslim and Hindu laity worshiping together at a mazar (Sufi shrine) attended by a Vaishnav priest[citation needed].
See also
- Bahá'í Faith and Hinduism
References
- ^ Tripurari, Swami, Christ, Krishna, Caitanya, The Harmonist, May 31, 2009.
- ^ Aggarwal, Patrap (1978). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar.
- ^ Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, Page 66
- ^ Singh Sikand, Yoginder. "Caste in Indian Muslim Society". Hamdard University. http://stateless.freehosting.net/Caste%20in%20Indian%20Muslim%20Society.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
- ^ a b Ambedkar, Bhimrao. Pakistan or the Partition of India. Thackers Publishers.
- ^ a b Web resource for Pakistan or the Partition of India
- ^ Dereserve these myths by Tanweer Fazal,Indian express
Further reading
- Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu? (2001) [1] ISBN 81-85990-74-3
- Harsh Narain: Myths of Composite Culture and Equality of Religions. Voice of India, Delhi 1991.
- The Religion of India: The Sociology of Hinduism and Buddhism
External links
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