- Cauchy-Riemann equations
In
mathematics , the Cauchy-Riemann differential equations incomplex analysis , named afterAugustin Cauchy andBernhard Riemann , are twopartial differential equation s which provide a necessary and sufficient condition for adifferentiable function to be holomorphic in anopen set . This system of equations first appeared in the work ofJean le Rond d'Alembert harv|d'Alembert|1752. Later,Leonhard Euler connected this system to the analytic functions harv|Euler|1777. harvtxt|Cauchy|1814 then used these equations to construct his theory of functions. Riemann's dissertation harv|Riemann|1851 on the theory of functions appeared in 1851.The Cauchy-Riemann equations on a pair of real-valued functions "u"("x","y") and "v"("x","y") are the two equations:
:(1a)quad
and
:(1b)quad
Typically the pair "u" and "v" are taken to be the real and
imaginary part s of a complex-valued function "f"("x" + i"y") = "u"("x","y") + i"v"("x","y"). Suppose that "u" and "v" arecontinuously differentiable on anopen subset of C. Then "f"="u"+i"v" isholomorphic if and only if the partial derivatives of "u" and "v" satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations (1a) and (1b).Interpretation and reformulation
Conformal mappings
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are often reformulated in a variety of ways. Firstly, they may be written in complex form
:(2)quad
In this form, the equations correspond structurally to the condition that the
Jacobian matrix is of the form:where and . A matrix of this form is the matrix representation of a complex number. Geometrically, such a matrix is always the composition of a
rotation with a scaling, and in particular preservesangle s. Consequently, a function satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann equations, with a nonzero derivative, preserves the angle between curves in the plane. That is, the Cauchy-Riemann equations are the conditions for a function to be conformal.Independence of the complex conjugate
Let denote the
complex conjugate of "z", defined by:for real "x" and "y". The Cauchy-Riemann equations are sometimes written as a single equation:(3)quad
where the
differential operator is defined by:
In this form, the Cauchy-Riemann equations can be interpreted as the statement that "f" is independent of the variable .
Complex differentiability
The Cauchy-Riemann equations are necessary and sufficient conditions for the complex differentiability (or holomorphicity) of a function harv|Ahlfors|1953|loc=§1.2. Specifically, suppose that
:
is a function of a complex number "z"∈C. Then the complex derivative of "f" at a point "z"0 is defined by
:
provided this limit exists.
If this limit exists, then it may be computed by taking the limit as "h"→0 along the real axis or imaginary axis; in either case it should give the same result. Approaching along the real axis, one finds
:
On the other hand, approaching along the imaginary axis,
:
The equality of the derivative of "f" taken along the two axes is
:
which are the Cauchy-Riemann equations (2) at the point "z"0.
Conversely, if "f":C → C is a function which is differentiable when regarded as a function into R2, then "f" is complex differentiable if and only if the Cauchy-Riemann equations hold.
Physical interpretation
One interpretation of the Cauchy-Riemann equations harv|Pólya|Szegö|1978 does not involve complex variables directly. Suppose that "u" and "v" satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations in an open subset of R2, and consider the
vector field :
regarded as a (real) two-component vector. Then the first Cauchy-Riemann equation (1a) asserts that is irrotational:
:
The second Cauchy-Riemann equation (1b) asserts that the vector field is solenoidal (or
divergence -free)::
Owing respectively to
Green's theorem and thedivergence theorem , such a field is necessarily conserved and free from sources or sinks, having net flux equal to zero through any open domain. (These two observations combine as real and imaginary parts inCauchy's integral theorem .) Influid dynamics , such a vector field is apotential flow harv|Chanson|2000. Inmagnetostatics , such vector fields model staticmagnetic field s on a region of the plane containing no current. Inelectrostatics , they model static electric fields in a region of the plane containing no electric charge.Other representations
Other representations of the Cauchy-Riemann equations occasionally arise in other
coordinate system s. If (1a) and (1b) hold for a continuously differentiable pair of functions "u" and "v", then so do:for any coordinates ("n"("x","y"), "s"("x","y")) such that the pair isorthonormal and positively oriented. As a consequence, in particular,in the system of coordinates given by the polar representation "z"="re"iθ the equations then take the form:
Combining these into one equation for "f" gives
:
Inhomogeneous equations
The inhomogeneous Cauchy-Riemann equations consist of the two equations for a pair of unknown functions "u"("x","y") and "v"("x","y") of two real variables
:
:
for some given functions α("x","y") and β("x","y") defined in an open subset of R2. These equations are usually combined into a single equation
:
where "f"="u"+i"v" and φ=(α+iβ)/2.
If φ is Ck, then the inhomogeneous equation is explicitly solvable in any bounded domain "D", provided φ is continuous on the closure of "D". Indeed, by the
Cauchy integral formula ,:
for all ζ∈"D".
Generalizations
Goursat's theorem and its generalizations
Suppose that "f" = "u"+i"v" is a complex-valued function which is differentiable as a function "f" : R2 → R2. Then Goursat's theorem asserts that "f" is analytic in an open complex domain Ω if and only if it satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equation in the domain harv|Rudin|1966|loc=Theorem 11.2. In particular, continuous differentiability of "f" need not be assumed harv|Dieudonné|1969|loc=§9.10, Ex. 1.
The hypotheses of Goursat's theorem can be weakened significantly. If "f"="u"+i"v" is continuous in an open set Ω and the
partial derivative s of "f" with respect to "x" and "y" exist in Ω, then "f" is holomorphic (and thus analytic). This result is theLooman–Menchoff theorem .The hypothesis that "f" obey the Cauchy-Riemann equations throughout the domain Ω is essential. It is possible to construct a continuous function satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann equations at a point, but which is not analytic at the point (e.g., "f"("z") = "z"5/|z|4). Similarly, some additional assumption is needed besides the Cauchy-Riemann equations (such as continuity), as the following example illustrates harv|Looman|1923|p=107:which satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations everywhere, but fails to be continuous at "z"=0.
Nevertheless, if a function satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations in an open set in a weak sense, then the function is analytic. More precisely harv|Gray|Morris|1978|loc=Theorem 9:
* If "f"("z") is locally integrable in an open domain Ω⊂C, and satisfies the Cauchy-Riemann equations weakly, then "f" agreesalmost everywhere with an analytic function in Ω.everal variables
There are Cauchy-Riemann equations, appropriately generalized, in the theory of
several complex variables . They form a significantoverdetermined system of PDEs. As often formulated, the "d-bar operator ":
annihilates holomorphic functions. This generalizes most directly the formulation
:,
where
:
ee also
*
List of complex analysis topics References
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*.
*.
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*
*citation|last=Riemann|first=B.|authorlink=Bernhard Riemann|contribution=Grundlagen für eine allgemeine Theorie der Funktionen einer veränderlichen komplexen Grösse|editor=H. Weber|title=Riemann's gesammelte math. Werke|publisher=Dover|publication-date=1953|pages=3–48|year=1851
*.
*External links
*
* [http://math.fullerton.edu/mathews/c2003/CauchyRiemannMod.html Cauchy-Riemann Equations Module by John H. Mathews]
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